SB    tb    fill 


Standard  Program  of  Studies 


FOR  THE 


SECONDARY   SCHOOLS    OF 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 


THIRD  EDITION 


1919 


GIFT   OF 


STANDARD  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES 


FOR  THE 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


OF 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

THIRD  EDITION 

1919 


CONCORD,  N.  H. 
EVANS  PRINTING  COMPANY 
1919 


Much  detailed  work  has  been  done  by  the  committee 
appointed  by  the  Educational  Council:  Headmaster  Har- 
lan  M.  Bisbee,  Robinson  Seminary;  Superintendent  Nor- 
man J.  Page,  "Woodsville;  Professor  Charles  L.  Simmers, 
New  Hampshire  College ;  Superintendent  William  H. 
Slayton,  Portsmouth;  and  Headmaster  Willis  0.  Smith, 
Keene. 

The  outlines  for  the  several  courses  were  drafted  as 
follows : 

French — Superintendent  Maro  S.  Brooks,-  Exeter. 
Latin — Headmaster    JIarlan    M.    Bisbee,    Robinson    Semi- 
nary, Exeter. 
United  States  Constitutional  History — Headmaster  Justin 

0.  Wellman,  Colby  Academy,  New  London. 
Economics  and  Business  Practices — Superintendent  Harry 

L.  Moore,  Berlin. 
Masterpieces  of  Music   and   Art — Mrs.   Willis   0.   Smith, 

Keene,  and  Headmaster  Francis  T.  Clayton,  Proctor 

Academy,  Andover. 
Greek  and  Roman  Literature — Headmaster  Elbert  E.  Or- 

cutt,  Plymouth. 

Physics — Headmaster  Willis  0.  Smith,  Keene. 
Chemistry — Superintendent  H.  Leslie  Sawyer,  Lebanon. 
Mathematics — Director    Wallace    E.    Mason,    Keene,    and 

Headmaster  Daniel  W.  MacLean,  Berlin. 
Practical     Arts — Deputy     Commissioner     of     Education 

George  H.  Whitcher. 
Bibliography  on  the  Secondary  School — Professor  Charles 

L.  Simmers,  New  Hampshire  College,  Durham. 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  1919  PROGRAM. 

NOTE  :  This  program  has  been  prepared  for  high  schools 
organized  on  the  six-year  plan.  Its  adoption  is  not  obliga- 
tory. Other  equally  good  programs  may  be  adopted  and 
will  be  approved.  Schools  which  are  not  ready  to  reorgan- 
ize may  continue  with  four-year  programs  of  the  old  type. 

The  Outline. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  outline  here  given,  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education  has  had  in  mind  only  the  educational 
needs  of  the  young  people  of  New  Hampshire.  It  has  be- 
lieved it  best,  though,  in  a  time  of  great  and  momentous 
changes  in  the  educational  world,  to  present  an  entirely 
conservative  plan  with  the  expectation  of  further  changes 
as  needs  arise.  It  has  looked  upon  the  standards  set  by 
different  colleges  for  entrance  requirements  as  valuable 
expressions  of  the  experiences  of  past  years  but  not  as 
barriers  to  the  healthy  development  of  our  schools.  It  will 
be  found,  however,  that  the  suggestive  curricula  offer  full 
preparation  for  effective  college  work. 

The  Last  Decade. 

There  are  three  reasons  why  the  new  program  must  dif- 
fer radically  from  the  former  ones,  (a)  In  ten  years,  the 
number  of  pupils  in  our  secondary  schools  has  more  than 
doubled  and  a  large  part  of  the  increase  is  of  pupils  who 
have  little  inherited  interest  in  and  natural  aptitude  for 
the  formal  studies  of  academic  programs,  (b)  The  ad- 
vances made  in  education  call  for  a  revision  of  all  school 
organization.  In  particular,  the  junior  high  school  has 


established  its  position  in  our  educational  system,  (c)  The 
events  of  these  years  emphasize  the  need  of  greater  devel- 
opment of  practical  work. 

The  Six-Four-Two  Plan. 

In  1916,  the  elementary  program  was  revised  on  the 
basis  of  six  years  in  the  elementary  schools.  The  work 
for  these  six  years  was  carefully  outlined,  together  with 
the  history,  the  science  and  the  practical  arts  of  Grades 
VII  and  VIII.  This  revision  of  the  secondary  program 
must  carry  on  the  plan  as  accepted.  It  is  held  that  the 
development  of  the  child  in  the  first  four  classes  of  the 
six-year  secondary  school,  that  is,  of  a  child  twelve  to  six- 
teen years  of  age,  calls  for  concrete  work  in  many  fields 
but  does  not  respond  readily  to  drill  and  abstract  instruc- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  the  pupils  of  Classes  V  and  VI 
have  reached  a  maturity  that  permits  effective  organiza- 
tion of  knowledge.  Accordingly,  the  program  is  based  on 
a  four-two  division,  with  the  fourth  year  a  period  of  tran- 
sition; that  is,  in  the  first  four  years  are  grouped  subjects 
that  are  inspirational,  instructive  and  experimental,  while 
the  last  two  years  contain  courses  designed  to  organize  and 
make  systematic  the  subject  matter  of  various  lines  of 
study. 

Emphasis  on  Science  and  Its  Application. 

Former  programs  were  defective  in  that  they  permitted 
the  devotion  of  excessive  time  to  the  language  arts  and 
slighted  science  and  the  practical  arts.  The  events  of  the 
last  few  years  have  shown  the  folly  of  this  emphasis  and 
made  it  imperative  that  thorough  work  in  science,  in  me- 
chanic arts  and  in  agriculture  should  be  available  for  all 
boys.  It  is  equally  important  that  all  girls  who  are  not 
fitting  for  the  traditional  requirements  of  some  specific 
college  should  carry  the  study  of  domestic  arts  throughout 
their  course.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  easily  possible 
with  a  six-year  program  when  difficult  with  one  of  four 
years. 


Other  Important  Changes. 

This  program  lays  greater  stress  than  before  on  French 
as  a  school  subject  and  places  it  in  the  first  years  of  the 
secondary  school.  It  delays  formal  courses  in  Mathematics 
and  other  traditional  school  subjects  until  there  have  been 
completed  practical  and  concrete  courses  in  English,  His- 
tory and  Mathematics.  It  recommends  for  all  seniors  a 
full  year's  work  in  Economics  and  the  Business  Practices. 

THE    LAW. 

"By  the  term  'high  school'  or  'academy'  as  used  in  this 
act,  is  understood  a  school  having  at  least  one  course  of 
not  less  than  four  years,  properly  equipped  and  teaching 
such  subjects  as  are  required  for  admission  to  college, 
technical  school,  and  normal  school,  including  reasonable 
instruction  in  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  and 
in  the  constitution  of  New  Hampshire,  such  high  school  or 
academy  to  be  approved  by  the  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion as  complying  with  the  requirements  of  this  section. 
And  said  superintendent  is  authorized  to  approve  a  school 
maintaining  any  part  of  such  course,  for  the  part  so  main- 
tained." Laws  of  1901,  Chapter  96. 

DEFINITIONS  OF   TERMS  USED. 

State  Program.  The  pamphlet  entitled  "Program  of 
Studies  for  the  Secondary  Schools  of  New  Hampshire. " 
This  standard  program  provides  a  guide  for  administra- 
tive officers  and  is  suggestive  rather  than  mandatory. 

Approved  Program.  The  whole  outline  of  work  con- 
templated by  an  institution.  It  should  be  called  The  Pro- 
gram of  the  School,  and  not  The  Course  of  Study  or  the 
Curricula. 

Curriculum.  A  portion  or  division  of  the  program  de- 
scribing a  particular  line  of  work  to  be  followed  through- 
out the  number  of  years  that  the  program  contemplates. 

Subject.  A  separate  branch  of  learning  as  Latin,  sci- 
ence or  history. 


8 

Course.  The  work  in  a  particular  subject  within  a 
single  year. 

Study.  A  division  of  a  subject  or  of  a  course,  as  log- 
arithms or  Latin  prose  composition. 

Unit.  A  single  course  pursued  not  less  than  four  pe- 
riods a  week  for  one  school  year  of  not  less  than  thirty-six 
weeks ;  in  certain  cases  a  unit  may  be  made  up  of  two  con- 
secutive courses  in  allied  subjects,  each  course  being  one 
semester  in  length. 

Semester.     One-half  year  of  school  work. 

Time-table.  The  daily  program  or  order  of  exercises  of 
the  school. 

Period.     A  regular  sub-division  of  the  time-table. 

Pupil.  A  general  term  for  all  persons  enrolled  as  mem- 
bers in  elementary  or  secondary  schools. 

Student.  A  general  term  for  all  persons  enrolled  as 
members  in  colleges,  normal  schools,  or  other  post- 
secondary  institutions. 

Mark. .  A  general  term  to  denote  any  numeral,  letter  or 
other  character  used  in  records,  as  "T,"  for  tardy;  "E," 
for  excellent;  "74,"  for  74%,  etc. 

Passing  Mark.  The  minimum  standard  for  passing 
work.  Usually  70. 

Rank.  Any  mark  given  in  percentage  form  to  denote 
the  relative  quality  of  the  work  done. 

Grades.  Conventional  marks  used  in  some  schools  to 
indicate  groups  of  excellence,  as  "A,"  "B,"  "C,"  "D," 
and"E." 

Standards.  The  minimum  requirements  of  excellency 
in  the  various  courses  upon  which  approval  is  given  by  the 
state  Department  of  Education. 


PART  I. 
The  Secondary  School  Characterized. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  APPROVAL  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 
The  Standards  in  Brief. 

Secondary  schools  will  be  approved  under  the  following 
conditions : 

(1)  They  must  follow  a  program  adopted  by  the  gov- 
erning board  and  approved  by  the  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation. 

(2)  They  must  employ  a  staff  of  teachers  with  sufficient 
qualifications. 

(3)  They  must  provide  a  suitable  building  for  instruc- 
tion and  equipment  adequate  for  the  courses  proposed. 

(4)  They  must  show  that  their   organization  follows 
regular  and  proper  standards. 

(5)  They  must  secure  efficient  administration. 

The  approval  of  schools  expires  August  31st,  annually, 
but  for  cause  is  subject  to  review  and  revocation  at  any 
time. 

For  convenience,  schools  are  listed  in  six  classes.  Class 
A  includes  all  schools  with  complete  secondary  programs. 
The  other  classes,  B  to  F,  in  alphabetical  order  show  that 
the  program  is  incomplete  by  one  to  five  years.  To  the 
class  letter  may  be  attached  a  numeral  to  show  the  number 
of  years  in  the  approved  program. 

The  Standards  in  Detail. 

Programs.  It  is  to  be  emphasized  that  the  program  here 
given  is  recommended  but  is  not  obligatory.  A  school 


10 

board  may  adopt  for  its  schools  any  program  that  it  wishes, 
provided  that  the  subjects  required  by  law  are  included. 
(1901,  92:6,  with  amendments.)  All  such  programs  pre- 
pared for  secondary  schools  will  be  approved  by  the  De- 
partment of  Education,  if  they  meet  the  reasonable  stand- 
ards for  secondary  schools.  (1901,  96 :4  with  amendments.) 
Among  the  standards  by  which  secondary  programs  will 
be  tested  are  the  following: 

1.  Four  unit   courses  in   admitted   secondary   subjects 
per  year  form  the  minimum  basis  of  each  program,  though 
each    curriculum    should    contain    optional    and    required 
non-unit  courses.     These  latter  need  not  be  given  daily. 

2.  To  avoid  a  program  narrow  in  scope,   each  pupil 
should  pursue  courses  in  each  of  several  fields  of  knowledge, 
as    English,    history,    science,    mathematics,    foreign    lan- 
guage and  practical  arts. 

3.  To   avoid   a   smattering   of   knowledge,    each   pupil 
.  should  carry  work  in  some  subjects  for  three  or  four  years, 

or  to  a  point  of  definite  mastery.    See  Secondary  Circular 
No.  1. 

4.  The  program  must  be  economical  according  to  the 
accumulated  experience  of  the  best  schools  of  the  state. 
A  program  which  proposes  to  do  work  in  algebra  or  in 
French  for  two  or  three  years,  which  other  schools  do  in 
one  or  two  years,  will  be  viewed  with  suspicion.    Similarly, 
courses  may  not  be  given  which  merely  repeat  formal  drill 
on  the  fundamental  principles  of  a  subject  when  the  work 
to  be  educational  should  progress  into  purposeful  activity. 
Experience  has  shown  that  two  courses  in  bookkeeping  or 
in  stenography  exhaust  the  possibility  of  gainful  drill.    If 
a  third  course  in  either  is  given,  it. should  be  in  the  actual 
application  under  real  conditions  of  the  principles  learned. 

5.  The  curricula  of  the  school  program  should  be  equal 
in  value,  and  constituent  unit  courses  should  merit  equal 
respect.      There    should    be    no    easy    curricula    or    snap 
courses. 

6.  A  school  which  offers  a  six-year  program  to  be  ap- 


11 

proved  must  show  clearly  that  it  accomplishes  more  work 
and  carries  work  farther  than  a  school  with  a  four-year 
program.  A  school  which  adds  to  an  unchanged  high 
school  program  two  introductory  years  filled  with  arti- 
ficial non-continuous  courses  will  be  approved  for  four 
years  only.  A  six-year  program  should  have  these  two 
characteristics:  (a)  It  should  add  a  year  to  the  pupil's 
program  by  carrying  four  subjects  a  year  beyond  the 
common  high  school  point  of  conclusion,  (b)  It  should 
also  enrich  the  usual  high  school  program  of  each  pupil 
by  four  courses,  valuable  but  not  of  necessity  courses 
which  are  in  a  sequence.  This  will  be  held  as  the  con- 
clusive test  of  all  six-year  programs  presented  for  ap- 
proval :  Does  the  program  actually  carry  the  pupil  a  year 
farther  in  his  work  than  did  our  earlier  programs? 

Teachers. 

General  Education  Required.     Teachers  must   have   a 
bachelor 's  degree  from  an  approved  college.    Except  that : 

(1)  Teachers  who  have  studied  four  full  years  in  ap- 
proved schools  of  post-secondary  grade. 

(2)  Teachers  of  modern  languages  who  have  received 
adequate   European  or  other  training.     Individual  cases 
to  be  approved  by  the  Department.    Provided  in  this  and 
the  three  cases  following  that  not  less  than  eighty  per  cent, 
of  their  teaching  be  in  their  specialized  subject. 

(3)  Teachers  of  domestic  arts  and  of  commerce  who 
have  pursued  at  least  three  full  years  of  post-secondary 
study  in  approved  special  institutions. 

(4)  Teachers  of  commerce  who  have  pursued  at  least 
two  full  years  of  post-secondary  study  in  commerce  in 
approved    special    institutions.      In    addition,    they    must 
have  two  years  of  general  post-secondary  study,  of  office 
work  or  of  successful  experience  in  teaching. 

(5)  Teachers    of    mechanic    arts    with    scholastic    and 
practical  preparation  sufficient  for  needs  of  their  work. 
Individual  cases  to  be  approved  by  the  Department. 


12 

(6)  Teachers  holding  Grade  B  certificates  whose  work 
is  restricted  to  grades  seven  to  nine  except  as  specifically 
approved. 

(7)  Teachers   who   have   one,   two   or  three   years   of 
post-secondary  study  in  approved  institutions  may  be  ap- 
proved to  teach  courses  not  above  the  corresponding  years 
of  the  secondary  program. 

(8)  Teachers  who  fail  to  meet  the  above  qualifica- 
tions  but   have   taught  with  success   in   approved   New 
Hampshire   secondary   schools.     Individual   cases   to    be 
approved  .and  the  courses  that  may  be  taught  to  be  speci- 
fied by  the  Department. 

Special  Preparation  Required.  Teachers  must  be  pre- 
pared by  two  or  more  years  of  post-secondary  study  of 
each  subject  they  propose  to  teach,  such  study  to  include 
the  branches  of  the  subject  presented  in  the  secondary 
courses.  Except  that: 

(1)  Teachers  who  have  but  one  or  two  classes  in  a 
subject  may  be  prepared  by  one  year  of  post-secondary 
study  of  that  subject. 

(2)  Each  year  of  post-secondary  study  may  be  re- 
placed by  two  years  of  successful  teaching  of  the  subject 
in  approved  secondary  schools. 

(3)  For  inexperienced  teachers,  the  Department  may 
waive  the  minimum  requirement  for  one  class  only.    Indi- 
vidual cases  to  be  approved. 

Equipment. 

The  Commissioner  of  Education  may  refuse  approval 
to  any  school  housed  in  an  unwholesome  building  or  one 
which  makes  satisfactory  work  impossible. 

For  each  of  the  courses  approved,  the  school  must  pos- 
sess, or  have  the  use  of,  such  texts,  reference  books, 
maps,  laboratory  and  school  shop  equipment  as  are 
needed  for  standard  work  along  the  proposed  lines.  The 
equipment  is  in  general  indicated  in  the  outline  of  the 
general  course. 


13 


Organization. 


A  school  is  not  a  collection  of  classes,  but  an  organiza- 
tion where  all  are  working  with  the  same  ideals  for  a 
common  end  and  the  headmaster  must  organize  it  for 
this  purpose. 

He  should  unify  his  school.  By  the  general  exercises 
of  the  school,  by  its  organizations  for  special  interests,  by 
its  public  exhibitions,  the  headmaster  makes  of  his  school 
a  social  unit.  He  should  regard  it  as  one  of  his  peculiar 
duties  so  to  form  and  guide  the  various  clubs,  teams  and 
other  interests  of  his  school  that  they  become  powerful 
factors  in  its  life  and,  though  he  reserves  to  himself  the 
control,  he  should  so  divide  the  work  that  each  assistant 
teacher  has  some  responsible  part  in  the  social  organiza- 
tion of  the  school. 

He  should  know  his  pupils.  The  headmaster  must  deal 
with  parents,  teachers  and  pupils  and  unite  their  diverse 
interests  so  that  all  may  work  in  unison  in  their  common 
task.  By  patient  study  he  must  learn  the  characteristics 
of  his  pupils,  their  ideals  and  ambitions  and  the  condi- 
tions of  their  home  life,  and  he  must  do  this  through  a  real 
interest  in  all  that  concerns  them.  An  interested  teacher 
can  do  more  than  a  truant  officer  to  keep  pupils  in  school. 

He  should  make  effective  his  authority.  The  headmas- 
ter as  disciplinary  head  of  the  school  is  to  be  held  respon- 
sible for  the  conduct  of  the  pupils  in  the  building  and 
basements,  on  the  playground  and  on  the  streets  as  they 
come  to  the  school  and  return  to  their  homes.  He  must 
strengthen  the  control  of  his  assistant  teachers  and  lead 
them  into  better  methods  of  solving  school  difficulties, 
while  he  is  constantly  alert  that  full  justice  be  done  to 
pupil  as  well  as  to  teacher. 

He  should  be  efficient  in  the  management  of  his  office. 
His  records  should  be  kept  with  system  and  dispatch,  he 
should  not  permit  desultory  attendance,  he  should  insist 


14 

that  pupils  do  reasonable  work,  that  they  follow  the  pre- 
scribed curricula  and  that  they  promptly  make  up  defi- 
cient work.  He  should  prepare  an  economical  time-table 
and  plan  the  work  of  the  school  to  avoid  confusion  and 
waste  of  time  and  effort. 

In  particular,  the  marking  system  and  the  recorded 
ranks  are  in  his  charge.  He  should  provide  that  the  school 
has  a  marking  system  thoroughly  understood  by  all  teach- 
ers and  uniformly  administered  by  them.  He  should  check 
any  individual  modifications  of  this  system  and  refuse  to 
record  ranks  that  express  the  carelessness  or  mental  vaga- 
ries of  the  teachers.  It  must  be  emphasized  that  no  work 
is  to  be  recorded  except  it  be  a  judicial  statement  of  fact, 
and  when  recorded  it  must  stand  as  a  permanent  school 
record.  The  headmaster  must  protect  pupil  and  school 
from  recorded  ranks  too  high  or  too  low  for  complete  jus- 
tice. 

Administration. 

The  administration  of  the  work  in  public  secondary 
schools  is  a  task  in  which  school  board,  superintendent, 
headmaster  and  teachers  have  definite  parts;  for  admin- 
istration includes  the  government,  the  supervision,  the  or- 
ganization of  the  schools  and  the  instruction  of  the  pupils. 

The  Government.  In  the  administration  of  the  schools, 
the  school  board  is  the  governing  body.  It  is  subject  only 
to  the  instructions  and  expressed  wishes  of  the  electorate, 
to  the  laws  of  the  state  and  to  the  rules  and  regulations 
of  the  state  board  of  education.  It  is  a  legislative  and 
judicial  body,  but  not  an  executive  one.  It  gives  general 
directions  and  rules  for  the  administration  of  the  schools 
and  it  passes  judgment  on  the  results  obtained.  No  mem- 
ber may  assume  the  power  of  supervision,  organization  or 
instruction,  except  by  vote  of  the  board. 

The  Supervision.  In  the  administration  of  the  schools, 
the  superintendent  is  the  supervisory  and  executive  offi- 


15 

cer.  As  the  agent  of  the  state  board  of  education  and  of 
the  school  board,  he  governs  the  schools,  makes  concrete 
the  general  directions  given  him  and  secures  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  school  laws  of  the  state  and  the  rules  and  reg- 
ulations of  the  state  board  and  the  school  board.  The 
supervision  of  the  schools  is  his  particular  duty.  He  must 
outline  the  material  for  instruction,  direct  the  methods  of 
teaching  and  judge  both  the  efficiency  of  the  teaching  and 
the  quality  of  the  work  done.  He  must  also  organize  his 
school  system  by  keeping  its  purposes  and  ideals  before 
teachers,  pupils  and  citizens — so  as  to  harmonize  all  in- 
terests and  unify  the  aims  of  the  schools.  He  must  instruct 
his  teachers  in  the  psychology  and  pedagogy  of  their  work 
and  see  that  they  are  familiar  with  the  advances  made 
in  the  science  and  practice  of  teaching. 

The  Organization.  In  the  administration  of  the  schools, 
the  headmaster's  chief  work  is  organization.  Under  the 
general  direction  of  the  school  board  as  interpreted  by  the 
superintendent,  he  governs  his  school  and  aids  the  super- 
intendent in  the  supervision  of  its  work.  He  may  also 
be  a  teacher  of  classes,  but  his  primary  duty  is  the  organ- 
ization of  his  school.  Though  the  superintendent  may  at 
any  time  review  the  details  of  organization,  it  should 
seldom  be  necessary  for  him  to  do  so.  He  should  rather 
present  the  general  scheme  so  that  the  headmaster  be  given 
great  freedom  in  working  out  the  details,  as  he  is  to  be 
held  strictly  responsible  for  results. 

The  Instruction.  In  the  administration  of  the  schools, 
the  teacher's  chief  duty  is  instruction.  She  must  govern 
her  room,  supervise  the  work  of  her  pupils  and  organize 
her  classes,  but  she  is  primarily  a  teacher. 


16 
CHAPTER  II. 

THE  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 
Definition. 

The  standard  elementary  program  recommends  that  the 
work  of  the  lower  grades  be  so  effectively  presented  that 
elementary  courses  are  completed  with  the  sixth  school 
year.  The  present  program  recommends  that  the  sec- 
ondary schools  be  so  reorganized  that  they  present  to  the 
pupils  in  Grades  VII,  VIII,  IX  and  X  secondary  courses 
in  a  concrete  and  practical  form  and  that  they  group  in 
the  two  final  years  of  the  secondary  school,  courses  de- 
signed to  organize  and  make  systematic  the  subject  matter 
of  various  lines  of  study.  The  term  junior  high  school  is 
used  to  designate  the  earlier  years  of  such  a  reorganized 
secondary  program. 

The  Program. 

The  junior  high  school  program  consists  of  four  unit 
courses,  together  with  B  and  C  subjects.  The  A  sub- 
jects are  those  requiring  drill  and  systematic  training. 
The  B  subjects  consist  of  general  exercises  and  the  organ- 
ization of  school  activities.  The  C  subjects  include  liter- 
ature and  reading  for  information  and  appreciation.  See 
the  chapter  on  "B  and  C  Subjects"  and  pages  10  and  11  of 
the  elementary  program.  The  four  recommended  unit 
courses  for  Years  I  and  II  are  history,  French,  mathe- 
matics and  a  half-unit  of  elementary  science  with  a  half- 
unit  of  practical  arts.  English  is  not  approved  as  a  unit 
subject  for  these  two  years  but,  as  a  B  and  C  subject, 
should  be  a  part  of  the  work  of  all  pupils. 

It  can  be  seen  that  the  constant  work  in  English  re- 
quired of  all  pupils  should  in  part  receive  attention  in 
periods  of  each  of  the  classes  mentioned  above.  Formal 


17 

instruction  in  the  mechanics  of  English  is  not  suited  to 
pupils  of  these  years,  but  practice  should  be  constant, 
with  insistence  on  correct  habits  of  expression,  and  liberal 
time  should  be  given  to  the  enjoyment  of  literature,  to  rec- 
itations by  pupils,  to  dramatization  and  to  effective  oral 
reading.  Classroom  work  in  books  of  the  formal  "First 
Year  English"  type  has  no  place  in  the  junior  high  school. 
During  these  four  years  all  pupils  should  carry  on  their 
work  in  gardening,  and  all  girls  their  work  in  cooking  and 
sewing,  and  in  these  activities  the  school  is  to  show  inter- 
est. 

The  School  Day. 

So  far  as  the  school  organization  will  allow,  supervised 
school  study  should  be  emphasized  in  Years  I  and  IV  in  the 
secondary  school.  Periods  should  be  extended  and  the 
school  day  lengthened  until  all  work  is  in  the  classroom 
and  the  pupil  goes  home  free  for  his  home  duties  and  his 
personal  plans.  The  old-time  recitation  should  seldom  be 
seen  and  all  classrooms  should  become  laboratories  for 
study  and  participatory  activities.  Each  pupil's  school 
day  should  be  completely  divided  among  the  A,  B  and  C 
subjects  of  his  program,  with  no  vacant,  unorganized 
periods.  See  elementary  program,  pages  222  to  224. 

Elementary  Subjects. 

The  junior  high  school  is  a  secondary  school  and  follows 
the  completion  of  elementary  subjects.  Its  program  con- 
tains the  application  of  the  subjects  of  the  elementary  pro- 
gram but  may  not  include  formal  courses  in  arithmetic, 
geography,  grammar,  reading  and  the  other  fundamental 
courses.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  arithmetic  merges  into 
the  secondary  school  mathematics  of  these  years,  that 
geography  continues  in  the  study  of  current  history,  that 
grammar  is  expanded  in  the  French  course  and  that  the 
program  provides 'for  such  drill  as  is  needed  in  reading, 
writing  and  spelling.  Whenever  it  becomes  apparent  that 


18 

junior  high  school  pupils  have  forgotten  the  process  of 
computing  simple  interest  or  of  dividing  fractions,  or  of 
spelling  correctly  "grammar"  and  "separate"  or  of  dis- 
tinguishing between  the  common  parts  of  speech,  the  B 
periods  should  be  devoted  to  drill  in  the  recovery  of  these 
lost  arts.  Elementary  subjects  should  not  be  retaught. 
They  should  be  redrilled  and  a  renewed  insistence  placed 
upon  their  correct  use.  The  high  school  must  not  allow 
pupils  to  forget  the  knowledge  and  practice  of  the  ele- 
mentary school. 

Tests  of  Completion. 

The  junior  high  school  does  not  teach  reading  and  his- 
tory, spelling,  handwriting,  composition,  grammar  and 
language,  physiology  and  civil  government  by  reviewing 
textbooks  but  by  so  organizing  itself  that  the  school  at  all 
times  passes  with  success  the  junior  high  school  tests  which 
follow. 

Reading  and  history  should  be  tested  by  the  knowledge 
that  pupils  have  of  things  of  vital  interest,  by  the  papers, 
magazines  and  books  that  appear  in  the  schoolroom  and 
by  their  apparent  use,  by  determining  what  pupils  read 
and  by  their  use  of  the  local  library. 

Spelling,  handwriting,  composition,  grammar  and  lan- 
guage should  be  tested  by  the  ordinary  use  of  English  as  it 
appears  in  school  papers  and  notebooks,  in  demonstrations 
and  other  board  work,  in  the  English  expression  of  the 
classroom,  of  the  school  corridor  and  of  the  playground. 

Physiology  should  be  tested  by  the  results  that  it  has 
produced  in  establishing  habits  of  correct  living.  The 
subject  is  not  worthy  of  approval  in  schools  where  the 
teeth,  or  hands,  or  persons  of  pupils  lack  cleanliness, 
where  pupils  sit  in  bad  posture  and  wear  their  rubbers, 
where  schoolroom  light  and  ventilation  is  defective,  where 
noon  lunches  are  of  unsuitable  material  and  are  bolted 
rather  than  eaten,  and  where  pupils  pass  the  intermissions 
grouped  in  parallel  or  in  series  in  place  of  seeking  fresh 


19 

air.  When  the  register  shows  poor  attendance,  with  many 
tardinesses  and  dismissals,  it  indicates  that  the  study  of 
hygiene  has  not  become  effective. 

Civil  government  should  be  tested  by  the  respect  which 
it  seems  pupils  hold  for  themselves,  for  each  other,  for 
their  teachers  and  those  in  authority.  The  subject  is  not 
worthy  of  approval  where  pupils  are  dishonest  or  indeco- 
rous in  the  classroom,  where  they  are  rude  and  silly  in 
their  behavior  to  each  other  and  to  their  teachers,  where 
the  ordinary  amenities  of  cultured  society  are  lacking, 
where  school  desks  are  in  disorder  and  paper  thrown  upon 
the  floors  and  yard,  where  school  books  and  other  prop- 
erty are  abused  and  basement  walls  marked  and  defaced, 
where  pupils  cross  the  school  lawn  and  avoid  the  paths, 
where  they  are  rough  and  boisterous  on  the  street  and  in 
the  cars  as  they  come  to  school,  where  respect  and  rever- 
ence are  so  absent  that  profanity  is  heard  on  the  play- 
ground, the  school  Bible  is  used  for  a  paper  weight  and 
the  flag  is  carried  with  indifference.  Where  these  things 
occur,  civil  government  has  failed  to  accomplish  its  full 
purpose. 

The  junior  high  school  should  not  teach  or  reteach  these 
elementary  subjects  but  it  is  to  insist  that  the  knowledge 
brought  from  the  lower  grades  be  retained  and  that  forms 
of  correct  expression  become  habitual. 

Failure  or  Success. 

The  junior  high  school  will  fail  whenever  teachers  are 
allowed  to  reteach  elementary  subjects  in  the  hope  that 
perfection  will  be  reached  instead  of  insisting  that  knowl- 
edge acquired  in  the  lower  grades  be  retained  and  used 
correctly  and  with  precision  in  the  habits  of  personal  ex- 
pression and  in  the  duties  of  the  schoolroom. 

The  junior  high  school  will  fail  when  the  program  is 
composed  of  the  traditional  high  school  subjects  taught 
in  a  formal  way  by  teachers  who  have  no  sympathy  with 
the  early  adolescent  years  and  who  feel  a  loss  of  dignity 


20 

when  they  teach  to  young  pupils  the  subjects  in  which  such 
pupils  are  properly  interested. 

The  junior  high  school  will  succeed  when  to  the  pupils 
of  these  years  is  opened  the  wealth  of  knowledge  that  has- 
lu'«'ii  concealed  in  formal  courses  offered  in  high  schools  of 
the  older  type. 

The  junior  high  school  will  succeed  when  the  pupils  are 
taught  by  the  best  methods  of  successful  teachers  in  the 
upper  elementary  grades. 

For  success,  the  junior  high  school  must  borrow  its  con- 
tent for  instruction  from  the  high  school  and  its  teaching 
method  from  the  elementary  school.  The  keynote  of  suc- 
cess with  the  junior  high  school  is  personal  interested 
work  with  the  individual  pupil. 


CHAPTER  III. 


HIGH  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS  GROUPED. 

In  the  growing  complexities  of  civilized  life,  constant 
and  insistent  demands  are  being  made  upon  all  schools  to 
add  new  subjects  to  their  programs  and  new  activities  to 
their  daily  schedules.  These  additions  are  desirable  but 
it  is  constantly  necessary  to  classify  them,  to  judge  their 
comparative  values  and  to  harmonize  them  in  the  school 
organization.  To  this  end,  in  our  programs  the  studies 
of  the  school  are  divided  into  three  groups,  A,  B  and  C. 

Group  A. 

The  subjects  listed  here  call  for  systematic  instruction 
and  drill.  They  will  be  assigned  a  regular  place  on  the 
time-table  with  daily  recitations  or  class  exercises.  These 
are  the  unit  subjects  of  the  program. 


21 

In  some  schools,  fortunately  a  decreasing  number,  these 
are  the  only  subjects  to  which  the  school  gives  serious 
consideration.  In  these  schools,  the  headmaster  keeps  the 
records  and  maintains  discipline.  The  science  teacher 
teaches  science,  the  mathematics  teacher  teaches  mathe- 
matics and  the  English  teacher  teaches  English,  but  no 
one  teaches  primarily  boys  and  girls.  As  a  result,  knowl- 
edge is  imparted  but  school  spirit  is  not  developed,  ideals 
and  aims  are  not  inculcated  or  unified  and  the  school  fails 
of  its  high  purpose. 

In  such  institutions,  there  is  a  group  of  instructors  but 
no  teaching  staff.  There  are  several  classes  but  no  school. 
Every  high  school  should  be  organized  for  ultra-program 
activities  and  teachers  and  pupils  should  regard  these  as 
vital  parts  of  the  larger  school  program.  This  should  be 
the  case  throughout  the  six  years  of  the  secondary  pro- 
gram but  the  need  is  so  insistent  during  the  first  four  of 
these  years,  that  is,  the  junior  high  school  years,  that  the 
program  which  follows  will  give  definite  place  in  these 
years  to  B  and  C  subjects. 

Group  B. 

These  subjects,  though  in  some  instances  requiring  sys- 
tematic development,  do  not  require  daily  instruction  and 
drill.  They  are  general  school  exercises  and  in  presenta- 
tion often  call  for  private  and  personal  application. 

They  should  be  a  part  of  the  school  organization  for  the 
first  four  years  of  the  program  and  should  have  recogni- 
tion on  the  time-table.  Two  twenty-minute  periods  a  day 
are  recommended,  though  accommodation  should  be  se- 
cured for  long  period  in  subjects  like  drawing.  Desirable 
periods  are  at  the  opening  and  close  of  morning  and  after- 
noon sessions  of  the  school. 

These  subjects  should  include  the  following:  (1)  Per- 
sonal Periods.  There  should  be  much  personal  and  group 
instruction  and  insistence  on  hygiene,  health,  habits,  man- 
ners and  morals. 


22 

In  this  instruction,  there  can  be  no  formal  outline  and 
no  definite,  determined  plan.  As  the  teachers  study  their 
pupils  in  the  formal  and  informal  relations  of  the  school 
and  the  home,  they  should  be  alert  to  exemplify  right 
personal  reactions,  to  warn  and  to  advise,  to  guide  and 
to  direct.  The  school  staff  should  meet  frequently  to 
study  and  discuss  their  pupils  as  persons  and  not  merely 
as  recipient  of  ranks  which  record  varying  degrees  of 
failure  in  assimilating  the  information  of  textbooks. 

It  is  a  growing  custom  for  teachers  to  be  directed  to  this 
work  and  to  unite  in  it  so  that  in  some  schools  the  pupils 
are  given  reports  which  indicate  their  rank  in  meeting  the 
standards  of  wholesome  and  social  living.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  each  teacher  devote  a  section  of  a  private 
record  or  memorandum  to  each  of  her  pupils  and  there 
note  as  occasion  arises,  the  details  to  be  considered  in  these 
private  conferences.  In  small  groups,  by  brief  talks, 
teachers  should  instruct  pupils  with  particular  attention 
to  personal  help  and  to  the  amenities  of  social  behavior. 
It  is  a  duty  then  of  all  teachers  in  a  most  intimate  way  to 
point  out  to  individual  pupils  the  changes  that  they  should 
make  in  habits  and  in  manners  as  they  grow  into  efficient 
manhood  and  womanhood.  It  is  inconceivable  that  schools 
should  longer  take  pride  in  scholastic  records  when  they 
allow  pupils  to  retain  unwholesome  habits  and  uncouth 
mannerisms.  That  a  pupil  should  be  reproved  for  a  mis- 
placed French  accent,  while  his  uncared-for  teeth  are  en- 
dured in  silence,  that  a  pupil  may  be  taught  the  correct 
atomic  weights  and  not  be  taught  to  address  a  stranger 
with  quiet  good  breeding,  that  a  pupil  may  be  told  of  his 
mistakes  in  algebra  and  not  told  of  bizarre  phrases  and 
awkward  gestures,  which  have  become  habitual  to  him,  is  to 
tithe  mint  and  cummin.  This  will  be  no  longer  possible 
when  personal  periods  are  required  in  the  school  organiza- 
tion. 

(2)  Drill  Periods.  All  recitations,  oral  or  written,  and 
all  exercises  must  show  the  completion  of  elementary  sub- 


23 

jects.      Individual    deficiencies    in    spelling,    composition, 
arithmetic,  etc.,  may  be  met  by  personal  drill. 

In  any  well-ordered  system,  pupils  come  from  the  ele- 
mentary schools  with  sufficient  knowledge  of  arithmetic, 
grammar,  spelling,  writing  and  other  school  practices.  A 
secondary  school  which  allows  this  knowledge  to  be  for- 
gotten and  these  habits  to  fail  through  disuse  is  seriously 
at  fault.  No  written  work  in  any  subject,  either  at  the 
board  or  at  the  desk,  should  be  accepted  until  it  is  legibly 
and  neatly  written,  correctly  spelled  and  expressed  and, 
similarly,  all  oral  recitations  must  be  in  clear  and  expres- 
sive English.  For  pupils  negligent  or  forgetful,  there 
should  be  individual  and  group  drill  but  this  is  distinctly 
a  corrective  exercise  personal  in  its  application.  In  Eng- 
lish classes,  most  of  the  composition  work  will  be  actual 
drill  and  practice  work  in  the  classroom  under  the  guid- 
ance of  the  teacher. 

(3)  Cultural  Periods.  These  are  periods  for  the  study 
of  literature  for  expression,  for  drawing,  for  singing  and 
for  the  study  of  current  history.  Each  day  the  news  of  the 
world  should  be  considered  and  the  vital  study  of  geogra- 
phy continued. 

In  the  cultural  periods,  personal  ideals  are  developed 
and  school  spirit  is  organized.  For  these  a  few  minutes  at 
the  opening  and  at  the  close  of  the  day  are  sufficient.  Aside 
from  the  study  of  music,  there  should  be  much  singing  in 
the  high  school.  The  great  songs  and  hymns  should  be 
known  and  loved.  The  pictures  of  the  schoolrooms  should 
be  appreciated  and  pupils  made  familiar  with  the  story 
which  they  tell.  In  cultural  periods,  the  school  should  be 
a  large  family  to  whose  information  and  enjoyment  pupils 
alone  and  in  groups  make  contributions.  The  news  of  the 
world,  of  the  town  and  of  the  school  circle  should  be  dis- 
cussed, reports  made  and  recitations  given.  The  devotional 
exercises  of  the  school  should  not  be  of  the  stereotyped 
form  but  should  be  characterized  by  simplicity  and  rever- 
ence. For  this  the  closing  of  the  school  day  is  particularly 


24 

appropriate.  By  brief  inspirational  talks,  the  headmaster 
of  the  school  can  do  much  to  formulate  school  ideals.  Il- 
lustrations of  this  are  the  talks  given  by  Superintendent 
J.  H.  Philipps  gathered  in  his  book,  entitled  "Old  Tales 
and  Modern  Ideals, ' '  and  by  J.  A.  Mowry  in  * '  Talks  to  My 
Boys." 

(4)  Organization  Periods.  It  is  to  be  emphasized  that 
the  school  is  not  only  a  thinking  body  but  a  working  body 
and  frequently  it  should  be  organized  for  some  specific 
task.  Commonly,  schools  are  organized  to  support  athletic 
teams  and  occasionally  to  present  a  dramatic  production. 
To  this  should  be  added  the  social  and  productive  work  of 
the  school.  The  garden  plans  and  various  forms  of  relief 
work  and  united  social  service  when  needed  are  indications 
of  the  extent  of  this  field. 

Group  C. 

The  term  "well  read"  should  characterize  high  school 
pupils  as  it  always  has  characterized  scholars.  The  in- 
terests of  pupils  in  agriculture,  in  science,  in  domestic  arts, 
should  result  in  large  reading  in  the  books  and  general 
magazines  devoted  to  these  subjects.  The  study  of  French 
or  of  Spanish  should  produce  a  reading. interest  in  all  that 
concerns  these  people  and  these  countries.  ' '  Outside  read- 
ing" is  a  vital  part,  not  of  the  work  of  English  classes 
alone  but  of  the  work  of  all  subjects  and  should  be  a  re- 
quirement in  the  outline  for  each  course.  Group  C  in- 
cludes the  wide  reading  of  the  educated  pupil  and  the 
specific  reading  upon  subjects  that  he  studies. 

The  school  program  should  make  provision  for  this  read- 
ing. An  opportunity  should  be  given  pupils  to  discuss 
their  reading  with  their  teachers  and  to  report  to  their 
interested  classmates.  The  school  reading  table  or  the 
school  library  should  provide  for  this  need  and  much  work 
by  pupils  and  by  classes,  with  their  teachers,  should  be 
done  at  the  public  library. 


25 
CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  DAILY  TIME-TABLE. 
The  High  School  "Recitation." 

In  our  high  schools,  it  has, been  customary  to  divide  a 
five-hour  day  into  six  short  periods.  In  each  of  four  of 
these  periods  called  "recitations,"  the  pupils  in  a  body 
meet  the  teacher  of  the  subject  in  order  that  she  may  de- 
vote the  greater  part  of  the  period  to  attempting  to  make 
them  recall  and  repeat  the  statements  made  by  an  author 
in  a  book  called  the  textbook.  During  two  periods  called 
" study"  periods,  the  pupil  in  a  general  room  prepares  his 
assignment  and  without  the  help  of  the  teacher  attempts 
to  solve  difficulties  inherent  to  the  assimilation  of  new 
material.  At  the  close  of  the  day's  session,  the  pupil  takes 
home  his  textbook  and  is  directed  to  devote  to  further 
preparation  for  the  recitation  period  of  the  next  day,  two 
or  three  hours  of  intensive  study  and  practice.  This  ex- 
ercise is  called  ' '  home  study. ' '  It  can  readily  be  seen  that 
this  method,  though  'still  prevalent,  is  neither  economical  nor 
efficient.  It  is  not  economical,  as  the  teacher  cannot  profit- 
ably spend  forty  minutes  daily  in  testing  the  proficiency 
of  pupils  and  making  assignments.  It  is  not  economical 
since  during  time  supposed  to  be  devoted  to  intensive  study 
the  pupil  is  away  from  the  primary  direction  of  his  teacher 
and  the  secondary  help  of  reference  books  and  school  equip- 
ment, for  he  is  at  home  in  an  undirected  study  room.  For 
this  reason,  for  young  pupils,  home  study  and  unguided 
school  study  is  seldom  of  real  value.  The  pupils'  study 
periods  are  periods  devoted  to  research,  to  orderly  ar- 
rangement and  to  practice  and  it  is  for  these  activities  that 
there  is  the  greatest  need  of  the  personal  presence  of  the 
teacher.  That  this  condition  is  faulty  has  long  been  recog- 
nized by  thoughtful  teachers  and  both  the  Department  of 
Education  and  the  Educational  Council  by  circulars  and 


26 

programs  have  urged  a  change.  In  no  school  should  the 
daily  *  *  recitation, ' '  which  is  devoted  mainly  to  questions  by 
instructor  and  answers  by  pupils  on  the  statements  of 
specific  textbook  pages,  be  longer  countenanced.  Superin- 
tendents and  headmasters  who  permit  new  teachers  to  ac-  . 
quire  this  teaching  habit  or  who  do  not  direct  experienced 
teachers  into  a  better  process  are  negligent  to  a  large 
degree. 

Project  Periods. 

During  the  last  few  years,  the  practical  arts  in  various 
forms  have  firmly  established  their  position  in  our  sec- 
ondary program.  The  courses  offered  in  agriculture, 
domestic  arts,  manual  arts  and  some  of  those  in  commerce, 
have  kept  themselves  free  from  the  formalized  recitation. 
Moreover,  many  courses  in  science,  through  the  influence 
of  the  laboratory,  and  most  courses  in  American  constitu- 
tional history,  through  the  interest  of  the  teacher,  have 
laid  aside  the  recitation  periods  and  provided  in  their  place 
project  periods.  The  teachers  of  other  subjects  should 
study  with  care  the  successful  methods  used  in  these  courses 
and  should  imitate  the  class  technique  of  well-taught 
classes  in  the  shop,  the  field  and  the  laboratory. 

Technique. 

The  work  set  for  the  class  should  be  divided  not  into 
page  assignments  but  into  projects  or  topics.  These  may 
be  longer  or  shorter,  for  an  hour,  a  week  or  a  month,  as 
the  subject  demands.  Teacher  and  class  should  give  little 
time  to  tests  and  to  recitations  but  together  should  study 
and  work  until  the  project  is  completed.  In  general,  all 
work  which  requires  guidance  and  class  direction  that  effi- 
cient results  be  obtained  and  unnecessary  habits  be  not 
formed,  should  be  done  in  the  classroom  with  the  teacher. 
General  reading  may  be  done  outside  and  when  necessary 
specific  projects  completed  there  but,  ordinarily,  neither 


27 

home  work  nor  written  examinations  is  desirable.  In  fact, 
except  when  a  formal  test  is  needed,  there  should  be  little 
writing  by  pupils  except  that  done  in  the  classroom  and  all 
this  writing  should  be  judged  and  corrected  in  the  class- 
room as  written. 

A  Work  Room. 

It  is  held  that  the  class  should  meet  in  a  work  room 
rather  than  a  recitation  room  and  should  combine  class 
with  group  and  individual  help  and  instruction.  In  this 
room,  the  pupils  are  learning  the  lesson  and  the  teacher 
is  guiding  and  directing  them.  The  work  will  vary  from 
hour  to  hour. 

(1)  Instruction.    In  work  periods,  the  teacher  will  first 
present  the  main  topic  to  the  entire  class  and  as  the  work 
progresses  will  re-present  it  to  groups  of  slower  pupils  and 
to  individuals.    She  will  devote  small  time  to  the  few  best 
pupils  but  will  guide  them  with  individual  encouragement 
to  more  advanced  work  than  is  possible  for  the  class  as  a 
whole.     She  will  spend  more  time  with  the  large  body  of 
average  pupils.     These  vary  little  in  ability  and  are  open 
to  group  instruction.     She  will  spend  much  patient  time 
with  the  poorest  pupils  as  individuals,  making  full  use  of 
the  principles  of  drill  with  repetition  and  practice. 

(2)  Drill.     In  work  periods,  much  time  must  be  given 
to  drill  but  drill  given  only  to  pupils  who  fail  in  the  essen- 
tial reactions  desired.    A  drill  group  should  always  exclude 
pupils  who  have  reached  the  degree  of  perfection  sought. 
The  drill  may  be  on  new  material  of  the  subject  presented, 
as  on   the   Latin   vocabularies   and   the   idioms   in   Latin 
grammar  or  on  any  weakness  observed  in  other  lines,  as  in 
spelling,  in  writing  and  in  arithmetic.     The  B  practice 
period  for  the  retention  of  elementary  subjects  mentioned 
in  the  former  chapter  should  not  require  a  separate  place 
on  the  school  time-table  but  should  be  incidental  to  the 


28 

various  courses.  Repetition  is  not  sufficient.  For  effective 
drill,  the  repetition  must  be  with  improvement  and  as  a 
teaching  exercise  must  be  preceded  by  participatory  activ- 
ity and  followed  by  habitual  and  correct  use. 

(3)  Practice    and    Correction.     In    work    periods,    the 
pupils  will  spend  much  time  in  practice  work  under  the 
guidance  of  the  teacher.    It  is  her  function  to  correct  errors 
before  unfortunate  habits  are  formed.     In  particular,  in 
oral  and  written  work  errors  should  be  noted  as  they  are 
made  and  correct  forms  required.     The  chief  purpose  of 
practice  periods  is  to  fix  correct  habits  of  work  and  ex- 
pression. 

(4)  Tests.     In  work  periods,  some  time  must  be  given 
to  testing  results.    This  need  seldom  be  by  formal  examina- 
tion or  for  the  whole  class  as  a  unit  but  by  simple  tests 
whenever  a  topic  or  subject  is  believed  to  be  completed. 
Their  purpose  is  to  determine  which  pupils  need  additional 
practice  rather  than  to  secure  for  all  pupils  formal  ranks. 

Supervised  Study. 

Many  attempts  at  supervised  study  have  failed  because 
teachers  were  unable  to  teach  pupils  how  to  study  or  to 
demonstrate  the  process.  Supervised  study  is  certain  to 
fail  whenever  the  teacher  allows  herself  to  serve  as  a  dic- 
tionary and  encyclopedia  and  an  answer  book  to  the  pupils 
of  her  .class.  She  is  not  to  give  them  information  but  to 
direct  them  to  its  acquisition.  Teachers  are  recommended 
to  see  Circular  No.  73,  "The  Long  School  Day  in  Win- 
chester High  School,"  and  No.  76,  "Physics  Without  As- 
signments for  Study  at  Home."  See  also  Hall-Quest's 
"Supervised  Study"  and  the  appropriate  chapter  in 
Parker's  "The  Method  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools." 

A  number  of  schools  have  reported  success  where  the 
attention  of  pupils  has  been  directed  to  habits  of  study  by 


29 

the  class  use  of  one  of  the  simpler  texts  on  the  subject, 
as  Whipple's  "How  to  Study,"  Sordwick's  "How  to 
Study  and  What  to  Study,"  but  more  important  than  this 
is  the  study  method  employed  by  the  teacher  herself  as  she 
works  with  the  class.  If  she  knows  how  to  study,  how  to 
approach,  to  master  and  to  use  new  information,  the  class 
will  follow  with  ready  imitation. 

The  Work  Periods. 

It  is  entirely  possible,  as  shown  in  our  schoolrooms,  for 
prepared  and  alert  teachers  to  carry  out  with  success  work 
of  the  kind  described  with  classes  of  as  many  as  thirty 
pupils.  It  is  not  necessary  that  these  pupils  be  in  a  single 
class  but  the  work  period  may  unite  allied  classes  as  Latin 
III  and  Latin  IV  or  Mathematics  I  and  Mathematics  II. 
With  group  instruction  for  each  class  in  small  schools  this 
arrangement  is  necessary  and  desirable.  The  work  periods 
should  be  of  sufficient  length  so  that  all  of  the  work  re- 
quired be  done  in  the  classroom.  This  would  usually  mean 
a  period  from  seventy-five  to  ninety  minutes  in  length. 

The  School  Day. 

The  school  day  should  be  so  arranged  that  all  school 
work  on  unit  classes,  all  developed  school  activities,  to- 
gether with  necessary  periods  for  relaxation  and  needed 
exercise,  be  completed  in  a  school  day  and  the  pupils  go 
home  free  from  school  requirements  for  the  pleasures  and 
duties  of  the  home  and  social  living. 

For  this  a  seven-hour  day,  from  8  :30  to  3  :30,  which  in- 
cludes the  luncheon  period,  is  sufficient  and  is  all  that 
should  be  required  of  the  child  in  the  junior  high  school 
years.  Schools  may  with  safety  add  for  the  mature  pupils 
of  classes  V  and  VI  an  hour  of  home  work  but  even  this 
is  of  doubtful  value. 

There  is  a  pronounced  tendency  in  our  schools  to  have 
a  two-session  day,  to  lengthen  this  to  six  full  hours  of 


30 

school  work,  to  drop  the  old-time  recess,  to  organize  the 
noon  hour  with  prepared  and  supervised  luncheons,  and 
to  arrange  for  school  periods  an  hour  or  more  in  length 
with  supervised  study  and  all  work  done  during  school 
hours. 

A  Suggested  Time-Tcible. 

A  seven-hour  school  day  permits  four  seventy-five  or 
eighty  minute  work  periods  like  those  described  in  this 
chapter,  together  with  suitable  periods  for  the  school 
luncheon,  for  physical  exercises  and  relaxation  and  for 
school  organizations.  A  typical  time-table  for  a  school 
with  a  six-year  program,  five  teachers  and  sixty  to  one 
hundred  pupils  is  given  for  illustration.  The  plan  is  ap- 
plicable, with  modifications,  for  larger  schools  since  in 
large  schools  the  pupils  would  meet  in  smaller  groups  for 
some  of  the  general  periods : 

First  Period,  8.30  to    8.45  Opening  Exercises.  ' 

Second  Period,         8.45  to  10.05  First  Work  Period. 

Third  Period,  10.05  to  10.10.  Relaxation. 

Fourth  Period,  10.10  to  11.30  Second  Work  Period. 

Fifth  Period,  11.30  to  12.15  Luncheon  and  Physical 

Exercises 

Sixth  Period,  12.15  to    1.35  Third  Work  Period. 
Seventh  Period,       1.35  to    1.40  Relaxation. 
Eighth  Period,         1.40  to    3.00  Fourth  Work  Period. 
Ninth  Period,  3.00  to    3.30  Organization  Period. 

Period  I.  The  school  opens  at  8.30  with  one  of  the  school 
songs,  for  every  school  should  have  its  own,  witli  other 
patriotic  and  inspirational  songs,  with  the  salute  of  the  flag 
and  such  other  exercises  as  will  start  the  school  happily 
and  busily  at  its  day 's  work.  Here  should  come  the  reports 
and  discussions  of  the  important  events  in  the  school  world 
and  the  larger  world  outside.  The  ideal  is  that  of  a  large 
family  coming  together  in  the  morning  with  cordial  greet- 
ings, with  a  discussion  of  common  interests  and  plans  for 
the  .day's  work.  The  teachers  are  but  leaders  and  inter- 


31 

ested  members  of  this  family.  These  exercises  should  never 
become  formalized  and  should  differ  from  morning  to 
morning.  Assignments  for  the  day  may  be  made  but  this 
is  no  time  for  school  discipline  or  formal  didactics. 

Periods  II,  IV,  VI  and  VIII.  These  are  the  four  work 
periods  of  the  day.  They  give  time  for  the  completion  of 
A  or  unit  subjects,  together  with  the  incidental  B  and  C 
subjects. 

Periods  III  and  VII.  These  are  brief  relaxation 
periods  when  all  windows  are  opened  and  pupils  are  at 
ease.  In  winter  months,  they  may  be  lengthened  for  brief 
intensive  physical  drill  and  setting  up  exercises. 

Period  V.  This  is  a  period  for  the  noon  luncheon  and 
the  development  of  social  interests.  The  luncheon  should 
be  light  but  satisfying  with  at  least  one  hot  dish  served  by 
the  school,  supplemented  by  the  personal  luncheon  of  the 
pupils.  The  pupils  should  be  seated  with  the  teachers  at 
tables  or  desks  with  attention  to  the  customs  which  health 
demands  and  custom  prescribes.  There  should  be  light 
games,  dancing,  singing  and  practice  in  dramatization. 
When  possible,  this  should  be  out  of  doors  but  in  inclement 
weather  the  building  may  be  used.  All  of  this  calls  for  or- 
ganization, for  leaders  from  among  the  pupils  and  gives 
the  teachers  an  unrivaled  opportunity  by  suggestion,  by 
guidance  and  by  demonstration  to  teach  to  the  school  les- 
sons in  physiology,  in  civics,  in  manners  and  morals,  an 
opportunity  that  has  been  wanting  in  most  secondary 
school  programs. 

Period  IX.  This  is  a  serious  part  of  the  day.  The  head- 
master frequently  will  talk  to  his  school  on  subjects  which 
concern  its  welfare  and  the  advancement  of  its  pupils,  ^he 
results  accomplished  in  separate  classes  will  be  reported 
by  competent  pupils.  The  school  will  be  organized  for  new 
activities,  failures  pointed  out  and  successes  applauded. 


32 

It  will  be  a  period  for  appreciation  through  the  presenta- 
tion to  the  school  of  some  masterpiece  in  art  until  the 
school  in  common  knows  and  feels  the  message  of  a  great 
picture  or  of  some  great  musical  composition  or  of  some 
poem,  some  speech  or  some  dramatic  production.  It  will 
be  the  period  for  recitations  by  the  pupils,  for  songs  by 
them,  for  the  presentation  of  dramatic  scenes.  On  one  day 
a  new  poem — the  best  magazine  poem  of  the  month — will 
be  taught  with  appreciation  and  will  be  memorized.  On 
another  day,  a  great  hymn  will  be  learned  and  these  will 
be  used  at  opening  periods  until  they  can  never  be  forgot- 
ten. The  period  should  close  with  the  quiet  devotional 
exercises  of  the  day.  The  plan  will  vary  from  day  to  day 
and  often  will  be  in  separate  rooms  with  teachers  assigned 
for  single  groups.  Its  purpose  is  to  harmonize  and  unify 
the  whole  organization,  to  develop  school  spirit  with  re- 
spect for  one's  fellows  and  a  feeling  of  individual  respon- 
sibility. If  Waterloo  was  won  at  Eton,  it  was  because  the 
Eton  masters  organized  boys  into  a  society. 

The  Four  Work  Periods. 

The  hypothetical  school  under  discussion  may  have  a 
program  composed  of  the  agricultural  curriculum  for  boys 
and  the  liberal  domestic  arts  curriculum  for  girls  and  may 
have  a  teaching  staff  of  five ;  a  college  graduate  of  agricul- 
ture, one  of  domestic  arts,  a  normal  school  graduate  trained 
for  junior  high  school  work  and  two  college  graduates 
equipped  for  academic  subjects.  Since  the  school  is  small, 
by  the  combination  of  classes  a  number  of  courses  need  be 
given  only  on  alternate  years  and  two  classes  in  the  same 
subject  may  work  together  in  a  common  work  period.  The 
courses  which  by  alternation  need  not  be  given  this  year 
in  Year  IV  are  field  crops  and  iron  work,  masterpieces  of 
music  and  art,  nursing  and  physiology,  and  physics,  in 
Ye*ar  V,  the  common  sciences,  and  in  Year  VI,  household 
management,  farm  organization  and  management  and  roads 
and  forestry.  The  program  would  allow  the  following 


33 

classes  to  each  teacher  during  the  four  work  periods.  It 
will  be  seen  that  there  are  no  vacant  periods  but  all  pupils 
and  all  teachers  are  constantly  occupied. 

First  Period. 

Teacher  A.  V  and  VI,  tools  and  engineering,     (boys) 

Teacher  B.  I   and   II,   cooking   and  sewing,   Monday   and 

Wednesday. 

Elementary  science,   Tuesday,   Thursday,  Fri- 
day,    (girls) 

Teacher  C.  I    and     II,    manual    training,    Monday    and 

Wednesday. 

Elementary  science,   Tuesday,   Thursday,   Fri- 
day,    (boys) 

Teacher  D.  Ill  and  IV,  history  of  civilization. 

Teacher  E.  V  and  VI,  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  (girls) 

Second  Period. 

Teacher  A.  Ill  and  IV,  woodwork,  (boys) 
Teacher  B.  VI,  economics  and  business  practices. 
Teacher  C.  I  and  II,  history  and  civics. 
Teacher  D.  V,  algebra  and  geometry. 
Teacher  E.  Ill  and  IV,  French,  (girls) 

Third  Period. 

Teacher  A.  V  and  VI,  animal  husbandry,  (boys) 
Teacher  B.  V  and  VI,  household  organization,  (girls) 
Teacher  C.  II,  mathematics. 
Teacher  D.  I,  mathematics. 
Teacher  E.  Ill  and  IV,  English. 

Fourth  Period. 

Teacher  A.  Ill  and  IV,  soils  and  horticulture,  (boys) 
Teacher  B.  Ill  and  IV,  household  appliances,  (girls) 
Teacher  C.  I  and  II,  French. 

Teacher  D.  VI,  United  States  constitutional  history. 
Teacher  E.  V,  English.  : 


34 
CHAPTER  V. 


THE  EVALUATION  OF  SCHOOL  WORK. 

Scholastic  Ranks.  We  are  now  concerned  only  with  the 
scholastic  ranks.  These  represent  accomplishment  alone. 
They  do  not  indicate  what  the  pupil  can  do  nor  what  he 
ought  to  do.  They  represent  what  a  pupil  has  done.  They 
show  relative  degree  of  success  in  the  completion  of  work 
assigned  the  class  by  the  teacher. 

The  Present  Custom.  It  is  the  custom  of  many  teachers 
to  wait  until  the  end  of  the  half  term  and  then  assign  the 
ranks  by  their  best  judgment  according  to  their  remem- 
brance of  the  work  done.  Still  more  teachers  stand  with 
call  book  in  hand  and  at  the  close  of  each  individual  reci- 
tation record  therein  its  value.  Both  methods  are  unsatis- 
factory. The  former  reflects  the  carelessness,  the  indiffer- 
ence or  the  varying  moods  of  the  teacher.  The  latter 
distracts  the  teacher's  attention  from  the  class,  puts  the 
emphasis  on  form  rather  than  substance  and  usually  results 
in  ranks  modified  by  the  teacher's  conception  of  the  pupil 
and  his  work. 

This  method  was  possible  as  long  as  teachers  were  satis- 
fied with  a  recitation  each  day,  a  period  for  hearing  the 
lesson ;  but  in  laboratory  science  and  in  the  practical  arts, 
a  daily  recitation  is  inconceivable  and  ranks  must  be  as- 
signed in  terms  of  laboratory  exercises,  projects  and  other 
accomplishments.  Not  only  in  the  newer  subjects  but  in 
the  traditional  ones,  the  adoption  of  supervised  study  and 
the  principles  of  Project  Periods  has  caused  vital  teaching 
to  replace  the  old -time  daily  recitation,  and  calls  for  a  re- 
vision of  present  marking  systems. 

The  Suggested  Plan.  Teachers  should  generally  replace 
these  methods  by  obtaining  ranks  from  a  combination  of 
the  results  of  a  considerable  number  of  carefully  graded 


35 

tests  based  upon  definite  accomplishment.  An  illustration 
may  be  taken  from  a  first-year  history  class.  During  the 
first  week  with  a  new  class,  the  teacher  devotes  herseii  to 
teaching,  she  interests  her  class  111  the  subject,  she  becomes 
acquainted  with  her  pupils  but  she  does  not  consciously 
evaluate  their  daily  efforts.  At  the  end  of  the  week  she 
takes  her  class  list  and  assigns  the  value  which  she  thinks 
each  pupil  deserves  for  his  work.  The  next  day  she  gives 
a  short  unannounced  test  on  the  chapter  covered  and  with 
especial  care,  ranks  these  papers.  A  few  days  later  she 
collects  the  map  books  and  ranks  them.  From  time  to  time 
she  studies  the  notebooks  and  tests  the  outside  reading  for 
a  similar  purpose.  With  these  will  be  combined  formal 
recitations,  oral  reports  on  reading,  many  short  written 
tests  and  any  other  objective  measurement  she  can  make 
of  any  phase  of  class  accomplishment.  At  times  she  will 
grade  the  class  according  to  participatory  activity  and  at 
times  in  terms  of  use  of  the  library  or  the  newspapers  to 
interpret  historic  events. 

Each  of  the  above  tests  with  others  will  be  a  definite 
evaluation  of  material  or  objective  results  and  the  average 
of  these  all  will  closely  give  the  actual  accomplishment  of 
the  pupil.  They  are  measurements  of  definite  lines  of 
achievement  but  if  carefully  assigned  will  seldom  vary 
greatly  from  each  other.  Teachers  should  find  occasion  for 
such  tests  as  often  as  twice  a  week  and  in  their  rank  books 
should  record,  in  the  decimal  scale,  the  pupils'  rank  to- 
gether with  the  date  and  nature  of  the  test. 

When  teachers  are  ranking  subjects  for  oral  or  written 
tests  as  a  whole,  they  should  not  attempt  a  finer  measure 
than  the  decimal  scale,  and  similarly  by  the  same  scale  the 
separate  answers  in  the  examinations  should  be  ranked. 
All  averages,  however,  should  be  in  percentage  notation 
for  87%  obtained  as  a  mean  from  fifteen  of  the  tests  just 
described  has  a  definite  meaning  and  is  very  different  from 
an  87%  judged  to  be  of  the  value  of  an  entire  composition. 

It  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  rank  papers  in  arith- 
metic and  algebra  or  to  indicate  the  quality  of  handwriting 


36 

or  spelling,  since -in  these  subjects  we  have  accepted  stand- 
ards of  measurement  and  relative  perfection.  In  other 
subjects  the  rank  must  still  depend  largely  upon  the  judg- 
ment of  the  teacher  and  must  indicate  not  absolute  value 
in  any  scale  but  relative  value.  This  means  that  all  papers 
ranked  78  are  of  equal  value  and  are  as  much  better  than 
papers  ranked  75  as  they  are  poorer  than  those  ranked  81. 

Grading  Papers.  Teachers  who  have  many  papers  to 
grade  according  to  their  relative  value  will  economize  in 
time  and  effort  by  throwing  the  papers  into  a  quintile  scale. 
To  do  this  they  should  give  the  papers  a  cursory  reading 
and  should  then  place  in  pile  A,  the  few  papers  that  show 
marked,  unmistakable  merit ;  in  pile  E,  the  equally  small 
number  of  papers  that  are  clearly  below  grade ;  in  pile  B, 
the  considerable  number  of  papers  of  high  general  work, 
mainly  correct  in  form  and  in  content  but  not  of  striking 
excellence ;  in  pile  D,  the  same  considerable  number  of  pa- 
pers of  low  grade  and  of  doubtful  passing  value,  and  in 
pile  C,  the  still  larger  number  of  mediocre  papers,  the 
average  papers  of  average  pupils.  Teachers  will  then  care- 
fully re-read  the  papers  of  each  group  and  will  find  occa- 
sion to  raise  or  lower  by  one  grade  such  papers  as  have 
evidently  been  misplaced.  At  the  end  about  7%  should  be 
in  class  A  and  in  class  E,  about  24%  in  each  of  B  and  D 
and  the  remainder,  38%,  in  class  C.  The  result  of  these 
tests  may  be  transferred  and  entered  in  percentage  nota- 
tion based  upon  the  passing  rank  of  the  school.  When  this 
is  70%,  A  may  well  be  95,  B  88,  C  81,  D  73  and  E  some 
appropriate  value  under  70%. 

It' is  understood  that  the  above  suggestions  are  for  a  fair 
and  economical  method  of  evaluating  tests  and  marking 
written  work,  they  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  correction 
of  errors.  These  same  papers  may,  of  course,  be  corrected 
for  errors  and  returned  to  the  writers.  This,  however, 
should  seldom  be  done.  It  is  burdensome  to  the  teacher, 
of  little  value  to  the  pupil  and  a  great  waste  of  red  ink. 
Most  written  work  should  be  prepared  in  the  laboratory 


37 

or  classroom  and  corrections  required  by  the  teachers  as 
the  errors  are  being  made.  Tests  should  always  be  marked 
as  tests,  though  deficiencies  should  be  noted  for  later 
teaching  or  drill. 

Distribution  of  Ranks.  A  particular  duty  of  the  head- 
master is  to  test  the  credibility  of  ranks  submitted  by 
teachers:  If  we  apply  the  probability  curve  of  statistical 
measurement  to  the  scaling  of  individual  scholastic  differ- 
ences, we  may  expect  where  70  is  passing  rank,  2%  of  all 
ranks  to  be  under  65,  5%  between  65  and  69,  18%  between 
70  and  74,  25%  between  70  and  79,  25%  between  80  and 
84,  18%  between  85  and  90,  5%  between  90  and  94  and 
2%  of  95  or  more.  Very  few  classes  will  meet  these  stand- 
ards, nor  should  they,  since  of  necessity  small  classes  differ 
widely  in  composition.  But,  the  headmaster  should  know 
the  reason  for  any  marked  divergence  and  when  he  finds 
teachers  who  mark  habitually  too  high  or  too  low,  who 
mark  erratically,  with  prejudice  and  carelessness,  he  should 
insist  that  they  so  revise  their  standards  that  justice  be 
done  the  pupils.  It  cannot  be  over-emphasized  that  the 
headmaster  must  not  enter  ranks  upon  the  school  record 
until  he  is  convinced  that  they  fairly  represent  the  actual 
accomplishments  of  the  pupils. 

Formal  Examinations  vs.  Tests.  Many  schools  still  fol- 
low the  custom  of  periodic  examinations  and  assign  to  the 
results  one-third  of  the  value  in  reaching  the  pupil's  rank 
for  the  period.  Probably  this  is  a  satisfactory  evaluation 
o'f  recitation  and  examination  work  under  the  traditional 
system.  Many  schools  are  coming  to  see,  however,  that  the 
common  custom  by  which  at  the  middle  or  the  end  of  the 
term,  work  in  all  classes  stops  for  a  fortnight  of  protracted 
review,  two  examination  days  of  nerve  strain  and  a  week 
of  anxious  waiting  and  disorganized  activity  until  the  pa- 
pers are  corrected  and  the  cards  are  out,  is  wasteful  in 
the  extreme  and  is  of  very  doubtful  educative  value. 

It  is  the  advice  of  the  Educational  Council,  that  formal 


38 

and  final  examinations  be  entirely  replaced  by  many  short 
unannounced  tests  given  when  the  class  has  finished  a 
period  or  chapter  of  the  course  and  has  procured 
results  that  may  be  tested.  Reviews  should  be  given  as 
before  but  would  have  no  necessary  connection  with  exam- 
inations. Their  purpose  would  be  to  organize  material,  not 
to  cram  ,for  examination.  The  Educational  Council  rec- 
ommends that  the  average  of  the  proposed  tests  count  one- 
half  in  determining  the  standard  of  pupils. 

Since  the  common  examinations  of  our  schools  have  their 
origin  in  the  college  entrance  examinations  and  in  the  ex- 
aminations given  by  university  professors  at  the  end  of 
lecture  courses,  it  is  worth  while  to  note  why  school  tests 
should  differ  from  formal  examinations  given  by  someone 
who  has  not  taught  the  pupils  examined  and  has  but  a 
single  opportunity  to  determine  their  attainments.  Such 
formal  examinations  should  be  long,  should  permit  a  choice 
between  questions,  should  have  a  low  passing  rank  and 
probably  a  sliding  scale  of  passing  values.  Examinations 
of  this  nature  may  properly  be  given  tuition  candidates  for 
high  school  admission,  and  furnish  justification  for  the 
familiar  regulation  that  admission  may  be  granted  to  pu- 
pils who  have  "a  general  average  of  70  or  more  and  no 
subject  under  50%." 

The  tests  a  teacher  gives  his  own  class  should  be  en- 
tirely different.  They  should  be  short,  frequently  given, 
at  natural  intervals  and  with  no  definite  questions.  There 
should  be  no  alternative  questions,  no  preferred  courses 
and  the  class  should  be  held  to  a  high  degree  of  attain- 
ment. 

The  Superintendent's  Duty.  Superintendents  should 
establish  definitely  a  clearly  understood  marking  system 
for  their  schools  and  have  the  regulations  of  that  system 
entered  in  the  school  record  book.  The  regulations  should 
name  the  passing  rank  of  the  school,  the  values  assigned 
examinations,  together  with  their  nature  and  frequency. 


PART  II. 

The  Suggested  Program:    The  Nine  Curricula. 


The  Proposed  Program. 

The  following  curricula  are  presented  as  models  but  are 
doubtless  susceptible  of  improvement  and  each  school 
mindful  of  the  advantage  of  similar  programs  in  all  of  the 
secondary  schools  of  the  state  should  still  modify  these 
curricula  to  meet  its  distinct  and  individual  needs.  It  is 
not  supposed  that  any  school  will  adopt  all  curricula  given. 
A  small  school  should  make  its  program  of  but  one  or 
two  curricula.  A  large  school  may  offer  wider  choice.  The 
program  presented  has  the  following  characteristics : 

1.  Without  loss  of  time,   it   adds  a   full  year  to  the 
pupil's  course.     In  the  academic  classical  curriculum,  for 
instance,  he  takes  the  equivalent  of  a  year  of  college  work 
in  that  he  takes  four  courses  that  he  would  not  have  other- 
wise.    They  are  physics,  chemistry,  college  Latin  and  col- 
lege mathematics. 

2.  In  addition,  it  enriches  the  course  by  a  full  year  of 
work  that  has  not  been  given.     It  gives  a  year  in  elemen- 
tary science,  one  in  the  practical  arts,  one  in  economics  and 
business  practices  and  an  additional  year  in  French.     The 
following  table  compares  the  two  courses  and  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  it  is  proposed  to  do  the  work  in  English 
and  in  Latin  formerly  done  in  four  years  in  three  each. 

OLD  PROGRAM.  NEW  PROGRAM. 

English  4  years     English  3  years 

Latin  4  years     Latin  4  years 

History  2  years     History  4  years 

Mathematics  3  years     Mathematics  4  years 

French  3  years     French  4  years 

Science  3  years 

16  Practical  Arts  1  year 

Economics  1  year 

24 
There  is  a  similar  gain  in  other  curricula. 


40 

3.  The  program  given  is  for  six  years  and,  as  four  unit 
courses    are    required    each    year,    twenty-four    units    are 
needed  to  complete  each  program. 

4.  In  all  but  the  Academic  Classical  Curriculum,  four 
full  courses  in  household  arts  are  required  of  all  girls. 

5.  No  curriculum  is  made  up  of  scattered  courses  but 
each  has  continuity  provided  for  in  the  carrying  of  some 
subjects  beyond  the  elementary  stage. 

6.  The  curricula  are  not  restricted  to  a  harrow  field  of 
work,  as  all  require  work  during  the  last  four  years  in 
English,   in   history,   in   mathematics,   in   science,    in   eco- 
nomics and  all,  except  the  two  Smith-Hughes  curricula, 
require  work  in  these  years  in  a  foreign  language. 

7.  Science  is  recognized  as  it  was  not  in  the  older  pro- 
gram. 

8.  In  the  first  four  years,   subjects  are   grouped  that 
are  inspirational  and  appeal  to  the  imagination  and  expe- 
rience of  the  child.    In  the  last  two  years  are  the  subjects 
that  require  drill  and  organization. 

9.  Any  subject  of  secondary  grade  may  be  included  in 
a  school  program,  if  the  school  is  equipped  for  its  efficient 
presentation.     Many  desirable  courses,  as  those  in  Greek, 
German,  biology  and  geology,  are  not  given  in  this  pro- 
gram but  may  be  introduced  in  different  schools. 

10.  To  a  secondary  school  organized  on  the  six-six  plan, 
pupils  may  be  admitted  who  have  completed  the  elementary 
work    of  an    eight-four    system    and    may    complete    the 
work  in  five  years.    They  will  be  admitted  to  Class  II  and 
would  take  for  the  first  year  Science  I,  Science  II,  French 
I,  Mathematics  I  and  Mathematics  II.    In  Classes  III  and 
IV,   they   would   do    regular   work,    with    extra   work   in 
French.    To  a  school  organized   on   the   eight-four  plan, 
pupils  may  be  admitted  who  have  completed  the  elemen- 
tary work  of  a  six-six  system  and  may  complete  the  work 
in  five  years.    They  would  be  admitted  to  Grade  VIII  and 
would  take  double  history,  arithmetic,  geography,  gram- 
mar, etc. 


41 


11.  It  will  be  noted  that  no  courses  are  suggested  in 
biology,  physiography,  astronomy  and  geology,  in  ancient, 
European  and  English  history,  in  Greek  or  in  German. 
These  subjects  are  not  omitted  because  they  are  not  proper 
constituents  of  a  secondary  program.     Admirable  outlines 
for  each  were  given  in  the  1912  program  and  schools  which 
wish  to  continue  these  subjects  will  be  able  to  refer  to  the 
standards  set  for  the  different  courses. 

12.  The  curricula  offered  are  nine : 

Academic  Classical  boys         girls 

Academic  Domestic  Arts  girls 

Liberal  Domestic  Arts  girls 

Commerce:  Girls  girls 

Commerce:  Boys  boys 

Business:  Girls  girls 

Business:  Boys  boys 

Smith-Hughes  Agricultural  boys 

Smith-Hughes  Mechanic  Arts  boys 

ALL  CURRICULA. 


Year 


History  and  Civics  5  days  5  periods 

French  5  days  5  periods 

Mathematics  5  days  5  periods 

Elementary  Science  3  days  3  periods 

Manual  Training  (boys),  Cooking 

and  Sewing  (girls)  2  days  4  periods 

(B  and  C  Subjects.  Drawing, 

Composition,  Plays,  Gardens,  Mu- 

sic, Current  Events,  Literature, 


Hygiene) 


5  days  10  half  -periods 


History  and  Civics  5  days  5  periods 

French  5  days  5  periods 

II      Mathematics  5  days  5  periods 

Elementary  Science  3  days  3  periods 

Manual  Training    (boys),  Cooking 

and  Sewing   (girls)  2  days  4  periods 


(B  and  C  Subjects) 


5  days  10  half -periods 


42 


ACADEMIC  CLASSICAL  CURRICULUM. 


Year 

English 

5  days     5  periods 

French 

5  days     5  periods 

III 

Latin 

5  days     5  periods 

History  of  Civilization 

5  days     5  periods 

(B  and  C  Subjects) 

5  days  10  half  -periods 

English 

5  days     5  periods 

French 

5  days     5  periods 

IV 

Latin 

5  days     5  periods 

Physics 

5  days     7  periods 

(B  and  C  Subjects) 

5  days  10  half  -periods 

English 

5  days     5  periods 

Latin 

5  days     5  periods 

V 

Algebra  and  Geometry 

5  days     5  periods 

Chemistry 

5  days     7  periods 

United   States   Constitutional   His- 

tory 

5  days     5  periods 

Latin 

5  days     5  periods 

VI 

Senior  Mathematics 

5  days     5  periods 

Economics  and  Business  Practices 

5  days     5  periods 

ACADEMIC  DOMESTIC  ARTS 

CURRICULUM. 

Year 

English 

5  days     5  periods 

French 

5  days     5  periods 

III 

Latin 

5  days     5  periods 

Household  Appliances 

5  days     7  periods 

(B  and  C  Subjects) 

5  days  10  half-periods 

English 

5  days     5  periods 

French 

5  days     5  periods 

IV 

Latin 

5  days     5  periods 

Nursing  and  Physiology 

5  days     5  periods 

(B  and  C  Subjects) 

5  days  10  half  -periods 

43 


Year 


English 

Latin 

Algebra  and  Geometry 

Household  Organization 


5  days  5  periods 

5  days  5  periods 

5  days  5  periods 

5  days  5  periods 


United   States   Constitutional   His- 
tory                                                      5  days  5  periods 
Latin                                                         5  days  5  periods 
VI     Economics  and  Business  Practices     5  days  5  periods 
Household  Management                       5  days  5  periods 


LIBERAL  DOMESTIC  ARTS  CURRICULUM. 


Year 


III 

English 
French 
History  of  Civilization 
Household  Appliances 
(B  and  C  Subjects) 

5  days     5  periods 
5  days     5  periods 
5  days     5  periods 
5  days     7  periods 
5  days  10  half  -periods 

IV 

English 
French 
Masterpieces  of  Music  and  Art 
Nursing  and  Physiology 
(B  and  C  Subjects) 

5  days     5  periods 
5  days     5  periods 
5  days     5  periods 
5  days     5  periods 
5  days  10  half  -periods 

V 

English 
The   Common    Sciences 
Algebra  and  Geometry 
Household  Organization 

5  days     5  periods 
5  days     5  periods 
5  days     5  periods 
5  days     5  periods 

VI 


His- 


United   States   Constitutional 

tory 

Greek  and  Roman  Literature 
Economics  and  Business  Practices 
Household  Management 


5  days 
5  days 
5  days 
5  days 


5  periods 
5  periods 
5  periods 
5  periods 


COMMERCE  CURRICULUM:  GIRLS. 


Year 

English 
French 

III     Bookkeeping,  Arithmetic  and  Type- 
writing 

Household  Appliances 
(B  and  C  Subjects) 


5  days 
5  days 

5  days 
5  days 


5  periods 
5  periods 

8  periods 
7  periods 


5  days  10  half-periods 


English                                                     5  days  5  periods 

Commercial  Geography  and  History  5  days  5  periods 

IV  Bookkeeping,  Arithmetic,  Stenogra- 

phy and  Typewriting                        5  days  10  periods 

Nursing  and  Physiology                      5  days  5  periods 

(B  and  C  Subjects)                               5  days  10  half-periods 

English                                                     5  days  5  periods 
Stenography  and  Typewriting,  Spell- 
ing and  Correspondence                   5  days  7  periods 

V  The  Common  Sciences                          5  days  5  periods 
Household  Organization                        5  days  5  periods 


VI 


United  States  Constitutional  His- 
tory 

Office  Practice,  Stenography  and 
Typewriting 

Economics  and  Business  Practices 

Household  Management 


5  days     5  periods 


5  days 
5  days 
5  days 


7  periods 
5  periods 
5  periods 


COMMERCE  CURRICULUM:  BOYS. 


Year 

English  5  days  5  periods 
French  5  days  5  periods 
HI     Bookkeeping,  Arithmetic  and  Type- 
writing 5  days  8  periods 
History  of  Civilization  5  days  5  periods 


(B  and  C  Subjects) 


5  days  10  half-periods 


45 


Year 

English 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

Commercial  Geography  and  History 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

IV 

Bookkeeping,  Arithmetic,  Stenogra- 

phy and  Typewriting 

5 

days 

10 

periods 

Physics 

5 

days 

7 

periods 

(B  and  C  Subjects) 

5 

days 

10 

half-periods 

• 

English 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

Spanish 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

V 

Stenography  and  Typewriting,  Spell- 

ing and  Correspondence 

5 

days 

7 

periods 

Chemistry 

5 

days 

7 

periods 

United   States   Constitutional   His- 

tory 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

Spanish 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

VI 

Office    Practice,    Stenography    and 

Typewriting 

5 

days 

7 

periods 

Economics  and  Business  Practices 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

BUSINESS  CURRICULUM:  GIRLS. 


Year 

English 
French 

III     Bookkeeping,  Arithmetic  and  Type- 
writing 

Household  Appliances 
(B  and  C  Subjects) 


5  days 
5  days 

5  days 
5  days 


5  periods 
5  periods 

8  periods 
7  periods 


5  days  10  half -periods 


English  5  days     5  periods 

Commercial  Geography  and  History  5  days     5  periods 
IV     Bookkeeping,  Arithmetic,  Typewrit- 
ing,  Spelling,   Correspondence        5  days  10  periods 
Nursing  and  Physiology  5  days 


(B  and  C  Subjects) 


5  periods 
5  days  10  half -periods 


46 


Year 

English 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

Spanish 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

V 

Household  Organization 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

The  Common  Sciences 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

United   States   Constitutional   His- 

tory 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

Spanish 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

VI 

Household  Management 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

Economics  and  Business  Practices 

5 

days 

5 

periods 

BUSINESS  CURRICULUM:  BOYS. 


Year 

English                                                     5  days  5  periods 
French                                                      5  days  5  periods 
III     Bookkeeping,  Arithmetic  and  Type- 
writing                                                5  days  8  periods 
History  of  Civilization                          5  days  5  periods 


(B  and  C  Subjects) 


5  days  10  half-periods 


English                                                     5  days  5  periods 
Commercial  Geography  and  History  5  days  5  periods 
IV     Bookkeeping,  Arithmetic,  Typewrit- 
ing, Spelling,  Correspondence         5  days  8  periods 
Physics                                                     5  days  7  periods 


(B  and  C  Subjects) 


5  days  10  half-periods 


English 

Spanish 

Algebra  and   Geometry 

Chemistry 


5  days  5  periods 

5  days  5  periods 

5  days  5  periods 

5  days  7  periods 


United   States   Constitutional   His- 
tory                                                    5  days  5  periods 
Spanish                                                     5  days  5  periods 
VI     Senior  Mathematics                               5  days  5  periods 
Economics  and  Business  Practices     5  days  5  periods 


47 
SMITH-HUGHES  AGRICULTURAL  CURRICULUM. 


Year 

English 

5  days     5  periods 

History  of  Civilization 

5  days     5  periods 

III 

Soils  and  Horticulture 

5  days  10  periods 

Wood  Work 

5  days     5  periods 

(B  and  C  Subjects) 

5  days  10  half  -periods 

English 

5  days     5  periods 

Physics 

5  days     7  periods 

IV 

Field  Crops 

5  days  10  periods 

Iron   Work 

5  days     5  periods 

(B  and  C  Subjects) 

5  days  10  half-periods 

English 

5  days     5  periods 

Algebra  and  Geometry 

5  days     5  periods 

V 

Animal  Husbandry 

5  days     7  periods 

Farm  Engineering  and  Tools 

5  days     5  periods 

United   States   Constitutional   His- 

tory 

5  days     5  periods 

Farm    Organization    and    Manage- 

ment 

5  days     5  periods 

VI 

Roads  and  Forestry 

5  days     5  periods 

Economics  and  Business  Practices 

5  days     5  periods 

SMITH-HUGHES  MECHANIC  ARTS  CURRICULUM. 

Year 

English  5  days     5  periods 

History  of  Civilization  5  days     5  periods 

III  Shop  Work  and  Mechanical  Draw- 

ing 5  days  20  periods 

(B  and  C  Subjects)  5  days  10  half-periods 

English  5  days     5  periods 

Physics  5  days     7  periods 

IV  Pattern  Making,  Forging  and  Mould- 

ing 5  days  20  periods 

(B  and  C  Subjects)  5  days  10  half -periods 


48 

Year 

English  5  days     5  periods 

Algebra  and  Geometry  5  days     5  periods 

V       Machine  Shop  and  Electrical  Wiring  5  days  15  periods 
Chemistry  5  days     7  periods 


United   States    Constitutional   His- 
tory 5  days     5  periods 
VI     Machine     Shop     Mechanisms     and 

Engineering  5  days  20  periods 

Economics  and  Business  Practices     5  days     5  periods 


NOTES  ON  CURRICULA. 

ALL  CURRICULA. 
Years  I  and  II  (Grades  VII  and  VII). 

In  General.  The  events  of  the  last  few  years  have  made 
the  knowledge  of  French  an  essential  element  in  educa- 
tion and  several  years  of  successful  experience  in  a 
number  of  our  schools  has  established  the  fact  that  the 
proposed  courses  in  elementary  science  and  in  concrete 
mathematics  have  a  vital  hold  upon  pupils  of  this  age. 
Accordingly,  the  same  courses  are  proposed  for  all  pu- 
pils during  these  two  years,  the  different  curricula  are 
not  distinguished  and  a  binding  choice  need  not  be  made 
by  the  pupils  until  the  third  year.  A  careful  study  will 
also  show  that  ambitious  pupils  who  have  started  in  the 
wrong  curriculum  may,  in  many  cases,  change  without 
great  hardship  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  or  even  the 
fifth  year. 

Possible  Changes.  Many  changes  are  possible  in  this  list 
as  schools  may  prefer  to  give  Latin  in  place  of  French. 
The  French  may  also  be  replaced  by  two  well-organized 
courses  in  elementary  agriculture  and  these  made  to  lead 
to  the  subsidized  Smith-Hughes  curricula  in  agriculture 


49 

and  in  mechanic  arts,  as  given  for'  Years  III  to  VI, 
though  the  recommended  curriculum  leads  to  these  as 
well. 

I.  Academic  Classical  Curriculum. 

In  General.  This  curriculum  is  designed  for  boys  who 
are  preparing  for  a  college  course  that  will  lead  to  work 
in  the  professions.  It  is  appropriate  also  for  girls  who 
desire  to  enter  those  colleges  which  still  restrict  their 
entrance  requirements. 

Possible  Changes.  The  course  in  History  of  Civilization 
may  be  replaced  by  the  traditional  course  in  ancient  his- 
tory. For  pupils  who  are  preparing  for  colleges  which 
will  not  accept  the  new  course,  a  brief  non-unit  course  in 
one  of  the  later  years  may  be  given.  Schools  which  de- 
sire to  give  a  third  foreign  language,  German  or  Spanish, 
may  introduce  courses  in  place  of  the  chemistry  and 
economics. 

In  three  effective  years  we  can  easily  do  all  the  work 
in  English  that  is  now  assigned  for  four  years.  Schools 
which  do  not  accept  this  view  may,  of  course,  replace  the 
economics  proposed  for  the  senior  year  by  a  fourth 
course  in  English. 

II.  Academic  Domestic  Arts  Curriculum.    . 

In  General.  This  curriculum  is  for  girls  who  wish  four 
years  of  Latin.  It  is  identical  with  the  Academic  Classi- 
cal Curriculum,  except  that  it  replaces  the  history  of 
civilization,  the  physics,  the  chemistry  and  the  advanced 
mathematics  by  the  four  regular  courses  in  domestic  arts. 
It  is  a  curriculum  of  high  educational  value. 

Possible  Changes.  It  is  doubtful  that  any  changes  should 
be  made  in  this  curriculum.  We  believe  that  any  sepa- 
rate courses  in  the  domestic  arts  should  not  be  approved 
but  that  the  four  courses  of  these  years  are  continuous 


50 

and  possess  a  unity  that  should  not  be  broken.  As  has 
already  been  said,  additional  mathematics  or  additional 
English  could  replace  the  course  in  economics. 

///.     Liberal  Domestic  Arts  Curriculum. 

In  General.  This  is  like  the  Academic  Domestic  Arts 
Curriculum,  except  that  it  replaces  the  four  courses  in 
Latin  with  history  of  civilization  and  three  new  courses. 
It  is  a  liberal  course  of  high  educational  merit  and  should 
be  offered  in  most  schools  and  chosen  by  a  majority  of 
high  school  girls.  It  furnishes  the  best  preparation  of- 
fered for  the  normal  schools,  makes  full  preparation  for 
New  Hampshire  College  and  furnishes  the  broad  educa- 
tion needed  for  the  teacher,  the  nurse  and  the  home 
maker. 

Possible  Changes.  A  second  foreign  language  may  be 
introduced  in  place  of  the  new  courses  or  of  economics. 

IV.     Commerce  Curriculum:  Girls. 

In  General.  This  curriculum  is  designed  to  prepare  girls 
for  office  work  and  for  clerical  positions.  There  is  a 
great  demand  at  present  for  young  women  for  work  of 
this  nature,  but  there  is  a  possibility  that  the  supply  may 
be  greater  than  the  demand  by  the  time  that  the  girls  of 
our  younger  classes  have  completed  their  preparation. 
Accordingly,  it  is  desirable  that  this  curriculum  should 
not  have  a  narrow  restriction  to  branches  of  commerce 
but  should  also  furnish  a  liberal  education  and  full  prep- 
aration for  the  career  of  home  maker.  In  the  four-year 
high  school,  it  was  very  difficult  to  give  to  the  same  pu- 
pils both  the  work  in  commerce  and  that  in  domestic  arts. 
In  this  program,  it  will  be  seen  to  be  entirely  possible. 

This  curriculum  is  like  the  Academic  Domestic  Arts, 
except  that  the  Latin  and  mathematics  and  the  fourth 
year  in  French  are  replaced  by  one  course  in  science  and 
five  in  commerce.  These  five  courses  are  (III)  Book- 


51 

keeping  with  arithmetic  and  typewriting;  (IV)  Book- 
keeping with  arithmetic,  stenography  and  typewriting 
and  commercial  geography  with  history;  (V)  Stenogra- 
phy with  typewriting,  spelling,  correspondence  and  pen- 
manship; (VI)  Office  practice  with  stenography  and 
typewriting. 

Possible  Changes.  It  will  be  noted  that  with  the  course 
in  economics  and  business  practices,  six  courses  of  com- 
merce are  given  in  this  curriculum.  By  agreement,  this 
is  ample  for  commercial  work  but  the  courses  in  com- 
merce may  be  rearranged  by  schools  that  believe  some 
other  plan  better  than  the  one  suggested.  Not  over  two 
years  may  be  devoted  to  drill  and  formal  work  in  book- 
keeping or  in  stenography,  and  office  practice,  if  offered, 
must  be  purposeful  work  of  a  practical  kind. 

V.  Commerce  Curriculum:  Boys. 

In  General.  This  is  like  the  girls'  curriculum,  except 
that  the  four  courses  in  domestic  arts  and  the  one  in  the 
common  sciences  are  replaced  by  the  history  of  civiliza- 
tion, by  physics,  and  by  chemistry  and  by  two  years  of 
Spanish.  The  curriculum  is  designed  for  boys  who  look 
forward  to  office  and  clerical  work. 

Possible  Changes.  The  two  years  of  Spanish  may  be  re- 
placed by  two  years  of  mathematics  in  schools  which  are 
not  prepared  to  teach  Spanish.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  particularly  for  boys,  Spanish  is  a  desirable  part  of 
a  course  in  commerce  and,  with  the  development  of  in- 
timate relations  with  South  American  countries,  is  likely 
to  be  of  great  value. 

VI.  Business  Curriculum:  Girls. 

In  General.  This  is  like  the  commerce  curriculum  for 
girls,  except  that  stenography  and  office  practice  are  not 
given.  The  Years  III  and  IV  are  the  same,  except  that 


52 

in  Year  IV  the  stenography  is  replaced  by  additional 
drill  in  typewriting  and  business  English  and  in  the  last 
two  years  is  replaced  by  Spanish.  This  curriculum  is 
suggested  to  meet,  the  needs  of  girls  who  wish  to  do  work 
as  cashiers  or  bookkeepers  or  who  engage  in  other  cleri- 
cal work  which  does  not  call  for  the  use  of  stenography. 
The  curriculum  is  not  recommended  for  general  adop- 
tion. 

Possible  Changes.  Spanish  may  be  replaced  by  German 
or  by  mathematics. 

VII,  Business  Curriculum:  Boys. 

In  General.  This  is  like  the  business  curriculum  for 
girls,  except  that  the  four  years  of  domestic  arts  and  the 
year  in  the  common  sciences  are  replaced  by  history  of 
civilization,  physics,  chemistry  and  two  years  of  mathe- 
matics. Many  boys  wish  courses  in  bookkeeping  but  do 
not  desire  work  in  stenography  and,  commonly,  clerical 
positions  which  call  for  stenography  are  held  by  young 
women.  This  curriculum  is  recommended  for  schools 
where  curricula  in  agriculture  and  in  mechanic  arts  can- 
not be  established  and  should  be  chosen  by  boys  who  do 
not  wish  a  Latin  course. 

Possible  Changes.  French  may  be  continued  for  another 
year  and  may  replace  the  course  proposed  in  history  of 
civilization. 

VIII.  Smith-Hughes  Agricultural  Curriculum. 

In  General.  This  is  the  curriculum  subsidized  by  the 
Smith-Hughes  Act.  The  vocational  courses  are  the  four 
in  agriculture,  the  two  in  farm  mechanics,  the  course  in 
roads  and  forestry  and  the  one  in  farm  tools  and  engi- 
neering. The  non-vocational  courses  are  three  in  Eng- 
lish, two  in  history,  physics,  algebra  and  geometry  and 
economics  and  business  practices.  This  curriculum 


53 

should  be  in  every  city  and  country  secondary  school  in 
the  state  where  there  are  farm  boys  and  its  selection 
should  be  urged  upon  a  large  number  of  boys. 

Possible  Changes.  Some  changes  may  be  made  in  the 
non-vocational  courses  but  none  in  the  vocational. 

IX.     Smith-Hughes  Mechanic  Arts  Curriculum. 

In  General.  This  is  a  Smith-Hughes  curriculum.  The 
vocational  courses  are  in  shop  work,  in  pattern  making, 
turning,  forging  and  moulding,  in  machine  shop  prac- 
tice, electric  wiring,  mechanics  and  engineering.  The 
non-vocational  courses  are  three  in  English,  two  in  his- 
tory, physics,  chemistry,  algebra  and  geometry  and 
economics  and  business  practices.  This  curriculum 
should  be  in  every  New  Hampshire  secondary  school 
that  is  in  an  industrial  center.  It  is  a  most  important 
curriculum. 

Possible  Changes.  Some  changes  may  be  made  in  the 
non-vocational  courses  but  none  in  the  vocational. 


PART  III. 

Courses  Outlined. 


CHAPTER  I. 


ENGLISH. 
Aims. 

English  courses  are  offered  in  our  secondary  programs 
(1)  to  open  to  pupils  the  world's  storehouse  of  informa- 
tion, that  is,  to  make  them  well-read  persons.  (2)  To  aid 
them  to  appreciate  and  relive  the  inspiring  thoughts  of 
others.  (3)  To  develop  in  them  the  power  to  express 
themselves  correctly  and  with  force. 

Three  courses  are  recommended:  English  III,  English 
IV  and  English  V. 

Standards. 

1.  The  appreciative  study  in  the  class  of  twelve  books 
each  year,  these  to  be  books  of  proven  value  in  which 
the  pupil  may  take  a  real  interest. 

2.  The   reading  throughout   the  year   of  one   of  the 
general  history  magazines  and  one  magazine  connected 
with  the  courses  which  the  pupil  follows,  as  one  which 
deals  with  domestic  economy,  with  science,  with  mechan- 
ics, with  agriculture,  with  geography  or  with  literature. 

3.  The   individual   reading   of   six   books,   preferably 
modern,   on   geography,    history,    invention,    commerce    or 
the  like.     These  are  the  worth-while  books  of  the  day 
which  are  more  interesting  than  novels. 

4.  The   constant   incidental   and   functional   study   of 
composition,  grammar  and  rhetoric  in  all  three  years. 

5.  The  systematic  study  of  the  history  of  English  and 


55 

American     literature,     of     composition,     grammar     and 
rhetoric  in  the  third  year. 

6.  In  the  first  two  years,  constant  drill  and  class  prac- 
tice in  composition. 

7.  In  each  year  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  pages  of 
carefully  prepared  written  expression,  the  greater  part 
of  this  to  be  regular  work  in  other  courses. 

8.  The  organization  of  the  school  for  correct  habits 
of  English  expression. 

Suggestion*. 

English  in  the  First  and  Second  Years.  Formal 
courses  in  English  in  these  two  years  are  not  advised.  As 
already  described  in  the  organized  A,  B  and  C  periods  of 
these  years,  there  should  be  much  reading,  composition 
and  the  study  and  appreciation  of  literature.  From  the 
first  day,  illiteracy  should  not  be  endured  but  corrective 
drill  and  constructive  practice  should  be  applied  to  all 
pupils  who  do  not  write  legibly,  spell  correctly  and  ex- 
press themselves  in  clear  terms  until  a  cure  is  effected. 

English  III  and  IV. 

The  General  Plan.  It  is  recommended  that  during  the 
first  two  years  the  equivalent  of  three  days  a  week  be 
devoted  to  reading  and  literature  and  two  days  to  compo- 
sition, expression  and  drill.  Each  may  be  .stressed  in 
turn,  for  the  reading  of  an  interesting  story  should  not 
be  interrupted  by  the  insertion  of  a  composition  day. 
Most  English  periods,  whether  literature  or  composition, 
should  begin  with  attention  to  the  events  of  the  day. 
Ordinarily,  the  teacher  should  make  a  brief  statement  of 
the  day's  news,  should  answer  questions  and  secure  defi- 
nite reports.  For  this  five  -minutes  is  ordinarily  suffi- 
cient. That  our  pupils  may  be  well  informed,  they  must 
be  well-read  and  the  purpose  of  these  exercises  is  not  to 
give  information,  but  that  the  teacher  may  arouse  in- 
terest and  by  suggestion  may  lead  pupils  to  intelligent 
reading. 


56 

Doubtless,  a  school  is  under  the  same  obligation  to 
provide  pupils  with  current  periodicals  as  it  is  with 
copies  of  Ivauhoe.  Many  schools,  however,  find  the  five 
cent  a  week  club  plan  preferable  as  each  pupil  then  owns 
his  personal  copy.  Among  the  weeklies,  The  Litcrtiri/ 
Digest,  The  Independent  and  The  Outlook  are  recom- 
mended and,  if  provided  by  the  school,  ten  copies  of  each 
will  be  sufficient  for  the  entire  school  if  English  classes 
number  not  over  thirty  pupils.  Pupils  must  also  have 
access  to  daily  papers  and  technical  magazines.  The 
little  paper,  "Current  Events,'"'  is  in  no  sense  adequate 
for  high  school  work. 

Literature  Periods.  Much  of  the  reading  of  periodicals 
should  be  in  the  classroom.  After  the  teacher  has  given 
her  morning  summary  and  suggestions,  each  pupil  should 
turn  to  his  reading  and  the  teacher  should  go  from  desk 
to  desk  for  personal  suggestions  and  for  discussion  of 
topics  which  have  aroused  interest. 

Most  of  the  ordinary  outside  reading  of  selected  books 
should  similarly  be  in  the  classroom  and  the  pupils  as 
they  retell  the  story  and  explain  its  incidents  will  ade- 
quately replace  the  formal  book  reviews  now  in  vogue. 

In  addition  it  is  likely  that  the  class  should  read  to- 
gether at  least  a  dozen  books  during  the  year.  Each 
classic,  should  be  taught  by  the  teacher,  by  the  sugges- 
tions of*  Chapter  XXII.  See  also  the  suggestions  in 
Parker's  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  and 
the  appropriate  chapters  in  Judd's  "Psychology  of  High 
School  Subjects." 

There  should  be  no  word  pronouncing  of  paragraphs  as 
at  present,  but  much  reading  for  rhetorical  effect  of  selected 
practiced  paragraphs.  The  purpose  throughout  is  that 
the  pupil  can  understand  and  appreciate  the  story  and 
to  this  everything  else  should  be  subordinate.  There 
should  be  little  conscious  study  of  the  style  of  the  writer 
or  the  meaning  of  isolated  phrases  or  incidents.  Vocab- 
ularies should  be  enlarged  by  forcing  the  meaning  of 


57 

new  words  from  their  context  and  not  by  the  common 
"Look  it  up  in  the  dictionary."  The  comments  of  the 
teacher  should  keep  the  subject  constantly  before  the 
class  and  her  questions  should  be  thought  and  not  mem- 
ory questions,  not  "In  what  English  county  did  you  learn 
yesterday  that  York  was  situated?"  or  "How  many  men 
does  Stevenson  say  David  heard  while  he  was  in  the 
apple  barrel?"  but  rather,  "Now  that  he  has  h'eard  the 
plot,  what  will  he  do?"  "What  would  you  do  if  you 
were  in  his  place?"  The  teacher  should  outline  the 
story,  the  class  should  read  it  silently  with  the  coopera- 
tion of  the  teacher,  then  should  follow  class  discussion 
and  the  study,  re-reading  and  enjoyment  of  selected  pas- 
sages. Most  classes  spend  upon  each  book  double  the 
time  that  is  profitable. 

English  teachers  should,  of  course,  have  access  to  the 
"English  Journal"  and  the  bulletins  referred  to  above. 
It  is  very  important  that  they  understand  the  psychology 
of  the  reading  process.  References  are,  Huey's  "The 
Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading"  and  G.  Stanley 
Hall's  "Pedagogy  of  Reading"  in  "Educational  Prob- 
lems." 

Few  teachers  can  teach  well  to  their  classes,  Ivanhoe, 
The  Last  of  the  Mohicans  and  the  Tale  of  Two  Cities. 
Those  that  can  should  continue  with  them.  Recom- 
mended books  for  these  years  are  Treasure  Island,  Kid- 
napped, David  Copperfield,  Nicholas  Nickleby,  The  Man 
Without  a  Country,  Two  Years  Before  the  Mast,  Cap- 
tains Courageous,  Silas  Marner.  See  also  the  excellent 
lists  in  Bulletin  1917,  No.  2,  Reorganization  of  English 
in  Secondary  Schools  by  the  National  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. 

During  each  year  there  should  be  more  careful  study 
with  re-reading  of  a  number  of  longer  poems  as  illus- 
trated by  Shakespeare's  plays,  Scott's  poems,  The  An- 
cient Mariner,  The  Holy  Grail  and  the  best  poems  of  the 
year  as  they  appear  in  current  magazines.  It  is  particu- 


58 

larly  desirable  that  pupils  memorize  and  use  short  poems, 
paragraphs,  verses  and  lines.  On  procedure  in  teaching 
the  memorizing  of  poems,  see  Halburton  &  Smith's 
"Teaching  Poetry  in  the  Grades"  and  Bolenus'  "Teach- 
ing Literature  in  Grammar  Grades  and  High  School." 

Composition  Periods.  All  practice  writing  should  be  in 
the  classroom  and  be  directed  and  corrected  as  written. 
Teachers  who  delight  to  spend  their  evenings  in  correcting 
compositions  may  continue  to  do  so  but  should  regard  it 
as  a  diversion  as  it  is  not  connected  with  the  inculcation 
of  corrected  habits  of  expression.  During  the  class  period 
the  teacher  will  pass  from  desk  to  desk  with  constructive 
criticism.  In  an  ordinary  class  of  twenty  there  will  be  four- 
teen pupils  who  will  need  from  the  teacher  little  more  than 
occasional  encouragement  and  direction.  There  will  be 
six  whose  practice  should  be  under  constant  guidance. 
Errors  should  be  corrected  at  once  and  the  proper  forms 
written  and  rewritten  until  the  habit  of  correct  expres- 
sion is  established.  For  this  practice  work  the  exercises 
should  not  be  long,  nor  should  they  be  formal  composi- 
tions. A  formal  composition  is  one  written  for  the  sake 
of  a  composition,  not  in  order  to  express  thought.  To 
send  a  girl  who  loves  music  to  the  encyclopedia  to  look 
up  wireless  telegraphy  so  that  she  can  write  a  composi- 
tion on  it,  is  to  impose  on  her  a  formal  composition.  She 
is  not  concerned  with  the  subject  but  only  in  the  connec- 
tion of  two  hundred  words.  On  the  other  hand,  the  boy 
who  has  his  own  plant  is  interested  to  tell  the  class  what 
he  knows  and  what  they  do  not.  This  is  a  basis  for  suc- 
cessful composition,  to  furnish  expert  information  to  the 
uninformed.  In  his  practice  compositions  each  pupil 
should  tell  simply  that  which  he  already  knows,  that 
which  he  has  seen  or  what  he  has  done.  The  newer 
manuals  of  composition  are  full  of  desirable  suggestions. 

Drill.  That  the  teachers  in  all  subjects  must  refuse  all 
work  in  incorrect  form  and  that  the  school  must  not 


59 

admit  illiterate  pupils  or  promote  them  has  already  been 
made  plain  in  our  circulars.  Such  pupils  must  be 
given  special  drill  but  must  understand  that  teachers 
will  not  tolerate  careless  or  superficial  work.  No  paper 
should  be  accepted  or  corrected  which  does  not  reach  60 
on  the  Ayres'  Penmanship  Scale  or  which  misspells  any 
of  the  Ayres'  "1000  Commonest  Words."  See  Institute 
Circular  No.  2. 

In  Institute  Circular  No.  1,  it  was  suggested  that 
schools  should  organize  for  correct  English  expression. 
There  have  been  many  experiments  but  the  most  hope- 
ful attempts  have  followed  this  method.  The  teachers 
of  other  subjects  are  primarily  Latin  or  physics  teachers 
but  they  insist  on  good  English  and  they  furnish  the 
English  teacher  with  material  for  drill.  In  their  class- 
room and  in  the  school  halls  they  note  with  the  name 
of  each  pupil  his  ungrammatical,  unrhetorical  or  uncouth 
statements.  From  his  written  work,  they  gather  his 
errors  in  composition  and  occasional  spelling.  They  em- 
phasize good  English  before  their  classes  and  in  personal 
conferences  aid  their  pupils.  At  the  end  of  the  week, 
they  give  the  English  teacher  their  notes  of  pupils  who 
need  specified  drill  and  she  files  these  notes  as  part  of 
her  individual  account  with  each  pupil. 

The  teacher  now  has  material  for  her  drill  periods  but 
this  will  seldom  be  drill  for  the  whole  class.  The  two- 
thirds  of  the  class  whose  habits  are  correct  will  be  seated 
in  the  back  of  the  room  at  whatever  work  they  need  to 
do.  Usually  the  teacher  will  have  drill  work  with  not 
over  four  or  five  pupils  at  a  time  or  may  work  with  in- 
dividual pupils.  The  errors  to  be  corrected  will  be  in 
spelling,  in  sentence  formation,  in  paragraphing,  in  slov- 
enly expression,  in  pronunciation  and  in  uncouth  man- 
nerisms of  speech.  To  the  individual  pupil  the  teacher 
will  point  out  his  error,  will  show  how  the  error  may  be 
detected,  will  give  much  drill  on  the  repetition  of  the 
correct  form  and  will  see  that  the  pupil  gives  it  the  prac- 


60 


tiee  that  is  needed  until  it  becomes  habitual.  At  later 
drill  periods  the  pupil  reports  progress  and  learns  of  the 
statements  of  his  teachers. 

.Many  of  the  composition  and  rhetoric  textbooks  con- 
tain suitable  exercises  for  drill  of  this  kind  but  these 
exercises  are  valueless  without  attentive  repetition.  The 
same  sentences  should  be  given  again  and  again  by  the 
pupil  who  needs  the  practice  till  his  response  is  habitual. 

Frequently  the  teacher  should  secure  the  written  work 
in  other  subjects,  notebooks,  reports  and  the  like.  She 
should  not  correct  these,  but  the  English  expression 
should  be  a  large  factor  in  her  determination  of  the  com- 
position rank  to  be  given  the  pupil.  A  most  excellent 
test  of  the  pupil's  ability  of  punctuating  correctly  is  to 
study  his  written  demonstration  in  geometry.  See  Cir- 
cular No.  2,  pages  6  and  7. 

The  Incidental  Teaching  of  Grammar,  Composition  and 
Rhetoric.  In  these  two  years  there  should  be  no  recitation 
or  general  class  work  in  any  of  the  formal  treatises  in 
composition  and  rhetoric  but  there  should  be  in  the  class- 
room for  reference,  a  number  of  these  books  and  partic- 
ularly Wooley's  Handbook.  Each  teacher  should  have 
a  copy  of  the  1916  Elementary  Program  of  Studies  and 
become  familiar  with  the  synopsis  of  grammar,  given  on 
pages  49  to  52.  The  teacher  should  remember  that  pupils 
come  from  the  elementary  schools  in  possession  of  this 
minimum  and  no  additional  grammar  is  needed  for  these 
two  years.  The  teacher  should  hold  this  knowledge  by 
use,  and  especially  by  use  in  the  composition  periods 
where  the  names  and  use  of  the  parts  of  speech,  the 
division  of  sentences  and  the  forms  of  expression  will 
constantly  be  associated  with  production. 

In  the  composition  periods,  the  rhetorical  terms,  clear- 
ness, force,  coherence,  topic  paragraph  will  be  in  general 
use  to  denote  characteristics  that  make  composition  clear 
and  well  understood.  So,  too,  in  the  literature,  the 


61 

names  of  the  figures  of  speech  and  the  technical  terms  in 
versification  will  be  but  the  names  for  the  forms  of  force- 
ful expressions  and  of  the  rhythm  of  pleasing  verse. 
They,  however,  are  concrete  illustration.  The  definitions 
are  not  known  or  the  classification.  The  pupil  knows 
that  the  third  line  of  Evangeline  has  a  simile  that  pleases 
him  and  which  he  repeats  with  pleasure,  but  he  does  not 
forthwith  learn  the  seven  forms  of  metonymy.  In  the 
same  study,  he  delights  to  associate  the  name  and  the 
swing  of  the  dactylic  hexameter  but  he  does  not  wish  to 
classify  all  known  forms  of  prosody. 

English  V. 

Th  e  General  Plan.  The  division  of  time  of  this  year  may 
well  be  one  period  a  week  for  the  history  of  literature, 
two  for  grammar  and  rhetoric  and  two  for  literature. 
During  the  year  the  work  in  current  history  and  litera- 
ture will  continue  as  before  and  there  will  be  much  read- 
ing in  technical  magazines  and  books  connected  with  the 
pupil's  interest  and  studies.  All  teachers  will  insist  on 
correct  work  and  it  is  hoped  that  but  little  personal  drill 
is  needed. 

Manuals  of  American  and  English  Literature  should 
be  studied  but  all  parts  omitted  that  have  to  do  with 
authors  or  works  which  the  class  have  not  read  or  are 
not  now  reading.  We  should  attempt  to  organize  only 
the  material  that  we  have  collected.  The  literature  for 
the  year  should  be  closely  connected  with  the  history  of 
literature  and  should  consist  of  reading  and  study  of  the 
most  important  books  of  the  writers  whose  lives  are 
studied.  Palgraves'  Golden  Treasury  should  be  used 
and  other  compendiums  which  contain  copious  selections 
of  illustrative  literature. 

During  this  year  grammar  should  be  reviewed  and  or- 
ganized and  all  the  elements  of  composition  and  rhetoric 
used  in  the  practice  of  the  earlier  years  should  be  classi- 


62 

fied  and  systematized.  Pupils  should  be  provided  with 
some  one  of  the  textbooks  on  grammar,  and  on  composi- 
tion and  rhetoric  and  should  carefully  study  and  follow 
these  outlines. 

English  in  the  Sixth  Year.  In  our  present  English 
courses  we  have  sufficient  material  for  not  more  than 
three  years.  This  has  long  been  the  opinion  of  college 
entrance  boards  which  allow  but  three  units  for  the  four 
years'  work  in  English.  Until  we  can  do  the  work  well 
it  is  not  desirable  to  further  extend  the  course.  In  any 
case,  the  work  in  current  history  for  the  senior  year  is 
an  integral  part  of  the  required  course  in  United  States 
Constitutional  History  rather  than  of  the  English  course, 
and  so  there  is  no  break  in  the  purposeful  reading  habits 
by  pupils. 

Schools  which  do  not  share  in  this  belief  may  well  di- 
vide the  work  outlined  above  for  the  third  year  between 
the  third  and  fourth. 

For  the  benefit  of  the  pupils  preparing  for  colleges 
whose  entrance  requirements  are  not  met  by  the  above 
suggestions,  many  of  our  schools  would  need  for  the 
present  to  give  a  fourth  year  in  English,  but  this  should 
be  an  optional  or  elective  course  to  be  taken  only  by 
thos'e  who  need  it  to  meet  college  demands.  There  should 
be  much  writing  of  long,  formal  compositions,  a  complete 
mastery  of  the  definitions  and  nomenclature  employed 
in  rhetoric  and  in  English  literature.  There  should  also 
be  a  word  by  word  study  of  the  classics  on  the  college 
required  list.  There  will,  of  course,  be  no  time  to  at- 
tempt to  make  this  course  of  educational  value.  It  would 
be  a  definite  preparation  for  college  entrance. 

Bibliography. 

Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools." 
Judd,  "Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects*" 
"English  Journal." 


63 

Huey,  "The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading." 

Hall,  "Pedagogy  of  Reading." 

National  Bureau  of  Education,  "Reorganization  of 
English  in  Secondary  Schools." 

Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  "English  for 
Grades  VII,  VIII  and  IX." 

Halburton  &  Smith,  "Teaching  Poetry  in  the  Grades." 

Bolenius,  "Teaching  Literature  in  Grammar  Grades 
and  High  School." 

Wooley,  "Handbook  of  Composition." 

Ayres,  "Penmanship  Scale." 

Ayres,  "1000  Commonest  Words." 


CHAPTER  II. 

FOREIGN  LANGUAGES. 

Courses  in  Greek  and  German  are  not  listed  here  as1  Greek 
has  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  New  Hampshire  sec- 
ondary schools  and  German  has  been  dropped  from  most 
programs.  Those  who  desire  will  find  courses  in  Greek 
and  German  outlined  in  former  programs. 

LATIN. 
Aims. 

,  Since  competent  psychological  experimentation  has  dem- 
onstrated the  fallacy  of  the  doctrine  of  formal  mental  dis- 
cipline with  unlimited  transfer  of  training,  and  since  the 
principle  seems  to  be  well  established  that  no  such  general 
mental  discipline  exists,  the  presence  of  Latin  in  a  school 
program  must  be  justified  on  other  grounds  than  as  a 
means  of  mental  discipline. 

Most  schools  have  modified  their  language  teaching  to 
conform  to  this  principle  and  in  Latin,  as  in  all  other 


64 

languages,  teachers  stress  the  development  of  ability  to  get 
the  thought  from  the  printed  page.  In  each  year  of  the 
course  they  are  emphasizing  sight  translation  and  reading 
in  Latin  and  are  reducing  the  amount  of  time  given  to 
grammatical  and  syntactical  drill. 

In  brief,  the  aims  kept  in  mind  in  the  following  courses 
are  that  pupils  may  understand  the  life  and  the  ideals  of  a 
notable  people,  foreign  to  them  in  time  and  race,  and  that 
they  may  profit  by  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  written 
memorials  of  these  people.  Throughout,  the  study  is  one 
of  life  and  of  literature. 

Standards. 

In  this  program,  four  Latin  courses  are  planned  and  are 
assigned  to  Years  III  to  VI  of  the  reorganized  six-year  high 
school  program.  The  courses  will  be  taken  by  pupils  who 
have  preceded  the  study  by  two  years  of  work  in  French 
and  in  these  courses  have  taken  sufficient  interest  so  that 
they  wish  to  choose  a  curriculum  that  directs  them  to 
further  linguistic  and  literary  study.  The  pupils  who  in 
these  French  courses  have  found  their  ability  to  lie  in 
other  lines  will  not  elect  a  Latin  curriculum. 

Because  of  this  selective  restriction,  and  because  of  the 
two  years  of  familiarity  with  a  foreign  language,  progress 
in  the  Latin  classes  should  be  rapid  from  the  first. 

It  has  long  been  the  custom  in  most  schools  to  devote  one 
day  in  five  to  Latin  prose  composition  and  much  of  this 
work  has  had  no  intimate  connection  with  the  subject 
matter  of  the  translation  days.  Educationally,  this  plan 
was  indefensible  and  in  practice  resulted  in  much  time 
uneconomically  spent.  In  progressive  schools  during  the 
last  few  years,  this  amount  of  time  has  been  very  much 
reduced,  since  the  excessive  work  in  composition  was  de- 
signed to  give  proficiency  in  grammar  and  grammar  is  no 
longer  held  as  a  primary  Latin  end. 

In  the  same  classes,  the  larger  part  of  the  translation 


65 

time  was  often  spent  in  tagging  and  classifying  separate 
words  under  the  name  of  syntax.  This  custom,  too,  is 
losing  ground. 

In  our  best  classes,  there  is  increasingly  much  silent 
reading,  much  thoughtful  translation  and  much  collateral 
study  of  the  life  that  is  mirrored  in  the  literature  read, 
with  the  result  that  the  old  quantitative  standards  set  for 
these  courses  are  found  to.be  inadequate  to  measure  rea- 
sonable work  for  these  years. 

It  is  evident  that  the  standards  should  be  materially 
raised  and  it  is  held  tkat  well  organised  schools,  working 
under  the  plan  of  this  program,  casi  complete  in  three 
years  all  of  the  work  set  in  translation  for  four  years  by 
the  older  plan.  There  will  then  be  opportunity  for  a  full 
year  of  additional  reading. 

1.  No   requirement   is   now  set   in   prose   composition, 
since  classroom  drill  will  in  general  be  sufficient  for  the 
educational  needs  of  the  pupils.    Schools  which  must  meet 
special  requirements  with  pupils  for  college  entrance  will, 
however,  need  to  add  formal  work. 

2.  Standards  of  completion  in  grammar  consist  of  all 
regular  inflections,  all  common  irregular  verbs  and  syntax 
of  prose  authors  read. 

3.  Fifty  per  cent.,  at  least,  of  all  reading  should  be 
sight  reading.    Selections  should  be  read  and  re-read  until 
pupils  are  familiar  with  the  thought  and  can  return  fluent 
and  satisfactory  translations. 

4.  Latin  III.     A  beginner's  book,  with  at  least  thirty 
pages  of  connected  reading. 

Latin  IV.    An  amount  quantitatively  equivalent  to  four 
books  of  Caesar  and  two  orations  of  Cicero. 

Latin  V.    An  amount  quantitatively  equivalent  to  four 
orations  of  Cicero  and  six  books  of  Vergil. 


66 

Latin  VI.  An  amount  quantitatively  equivalent  to  at 
least  the  work  of  Latin  V.  The  texts  recommended  are 
Cicero,  Ovid,  Livy,  Horace,  Tacitus,  Pliny. 

It  is  recognized  that  in  schools  where  Latin  is  not  pre- 
ceded by  French,  the  above  quantitative  standards  are 
probably  excessive  and  these  may  be  substituted : 

Latin  IV.  An  amount  quantitatively  equivalent  to  five 
books  of  Caesar. 

Latin  V.  An  amount  quantitatively  equivalent  to  eight 
orations  of  Cicero. 

Latin  VI.  An  amount  quantitatively  equivalent  to  six 
books  of  Vergil,  with  2,000  lines  of  Ovid. 

In  some  schools,  Latin  may  be  given  in  place  of  French 
in  Grades  VII  and  VIII.  No  outline  has  been  prepared 
for  such  courses  but  teachers  may  find  helpful  suggestions 
in  the  section  on  French  for  these  years.  The  attempt  in 
American  schools  to  teach  Latin  as  a  spoken  language, 
however,  in  imitation  of  conversational  work  in  French  is 
probably  pedantic  affectation. 

Suggestions. 

It  is  found  that  extensive  reading,  with  due  insistence 
upon  accuracy  and  idiomatic  English,  develops  greater 
ability  in  thought-getting  and  in  translation  than  is  gen- 
erally acquired  through  excessive  attention  to  syntax. 

Mastery  of  forms  through  intensive  drill  is  imperative 
in  first-year  work.  Much  of  this  drill  is  best  given  by  ex- 
tensive reading  of  simple,  well-graded  story  exercises. 
Work  of  this  kind  is  particularly  successful  when  stories 
are  written  by  teachers  to  supplement  the  material  found 
in  beginners'  books.  The  need  of  a  particular  class  is  best 
satisfied  in  this  way  because  at  the  close  of  a  period  the 
teachers  know  what  forms  especially  need  numerous  repe- 
titions in  the  translation  of  the  following  day.  By  select- 


67 

ing  stories  and  sentences  from  many  first-year  books,  much 
material  may  be  provided  for  sight  translation  from  the 
blackboard  or  from  printed  sheets.  Some  schools  are  using 
material  in  the  first  year  which  is  equivalent  to  all  that 
can  be  found  in  five  first-year  Latin  books. 

If  stories  are  so  carefully  graded  that  pupils  are  led  by 
easy  steps  from  one  form  of  expression  or  principle  of  syn- 
tax to  another  only  slightly  more  difficult,  and  if  abundant 
practice  in  reading  is  provided,  the  task  of  greatest  im- 
portance will  be  accomplished.  Doubtless  many  first-year 
classes  could  read  five  or  six  times  the  amount  they  usually 
read. 

In  connection  with  sight  translation,  it  is  valuable  to 
have  the  class  read  rapidly  a  story  or  selection  to  get  the 
thought  and  have  pupils  give  an  outline  of  the  essential 
points  before  giving  a  careful,  detailed  translation. 

Rapid  perception  card  drill  for  short  intervals  in  class 
on  forms  and  vocabulary  is  one  of  the  best  devices  known 
for  effective  repetition  and  mastery  of  essentials  and  is 
advised  for  each  year  of  the  course.  Pupils  also  should 
practice  daily  in  study  periods  with  small  individual  per- 
ception cards,  using  them  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

A  working  vocabulary  should  be  thoroughly  known  so 
that  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  pupil  to  consult  a  lexicon 
very  rarely  when  he  is  reading. 

Energy  should  be  spent  on  reading,  on  working  out  the 
meaning  of  words  from  known  sources,  on  derivation  of 
words — not  on  looking  up  'in  the  lexicon  the  meaning  of 
words  that  the  pupil  is  capable  of  thinking  out.  Less 
finger  exercise  on  the  vocabulary  and  more  active  exercis- 
ing of  brain  cells  is  needed  in  nearly  every  Latin  class.* 

Attention  to  mythology,  to  historical  and  literary  allu- 
sions enhances  the  pupil's  interest  and  adds  appreciably  to 
his  enjoyment  both  in  school  and  in  later  life. 

Prose  drill  at  sight  in  class  generally  will  be  sufficient  to 
meet  the  needs  of  pupils  not  preparing  for  college.  The 
latter  may  be  given  additional  prose  work. 


68 

Bibliography. 

Suggested  material  for  reading: 

Latin  III. 

Chickering's  Latin  Reader:  Charles  Soribner's  Sons. 
Nutting's  Latin  Reader:  American  Book  Company. 
Fabulae  Faciles:  Longmans,  Green  &  Company. 
Reynolds'  Latin  Reader:  D.  C.  Heath  &  Company. 

Latin  IV. 

Viri  Romae. 

Via  Latina. 

Eutropius. 

Nepos,  Lives. 

Caesar,  Gallic  War,  Civil  War. 

Latin  V. 

Sallust,  Catiline,  Jugurthine  War. 
Cicero,  Letters. 
Ovid  Metamorphoses. 
Vergil. 

Latin  VI. 

Vergil. 

Cicero,  de  Senectute,  de  Amicitia. 

Ovid,  Fasti,  Tristia. 

Livy,  Books  I,  XXI,  XXII. 

Horace,  Odes. 

Tacitus,  Agricola. 

Pliny,  Letters. 

Other  books  good  for  beginners  are: 

Smith :  Allyn  &  Bacon. 

Perkins:  Benjamin  H.  Sanborn  &  Company. 

Ritchie's  First  Steps:  Longmans,  Green  &  Company. 

Barss :  D.  C.  Heath  &  Company. 

Collar,  Daniell  &  Jenkins:  Ginn  &  Company. 

Kirtland  &  Rogers  :.D.  Appleton  &  Company. 


69 

Good  direct-method  books  are: 

Chickering:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 
Primus  Annus :  Oxford  Press,  New  York. 
Decem  Fabulae :  Oxford  Press. 

FRENCH. 

Aims. 

The  aim  of  instruction  in  a  modern  foreign  language  is 
highly  complex.  To  one  group  of  students  fluency  in 
speaking  the  language  will  prove  of  special  value;  to  an- 
other, ability  to  read  foreign  newspapers  and  periodicals 
in  connection  with  literary,  artistic,  or  scientific  pursuits; 
to  a  third,  so  thorough  a  reading  knowledge  as  to  make  the 
study  of  the  literature  a  source  of  profit  and  pleasure ;  to  a 
fourth,  facility  in  writing  the  language  for  commercial 
purposes. 

"Whatever  be  the  appeal  to  the  student  because  of  kis 
special  needs  or  aptitudes,  the  successful  study  of  a  foreign 
language  gives  him  a  new  point  of  view  toward  his  mother 
tongue.  He  acquires  a  better  understanding  of  its  struc- 
ture. He  increases  his  working  vocabulary,  and  as  he  be- 
comes more  sensitive  to  shades  of  meaning  through  compar- 
ison and  discrimination,  he  develops  greater  precision  in 
the  relation  of  words  to  thought. 

In  recent  years  the  tendency  has  been  to  emphasize  the 
utilitarian,  rather  than  the  cultural  or  disciplinary, 
values  in  the  study  of  a  foreign  language.  The  fact  re- 
mains that  power  •  and  breadth  are  to  be  derived  from 
such  study,  and  that  it  should  be  carried  on  in  such  a  way 
as  to  furnish  means  of  development  and  to  add  to  one's  life 
a  permanent  intellectual  interest. 

One  great  purpose  of  foreign-language  study  is  to  create 
so  deep  an  interest  in  the  country,  its  people,  literature, 
history,  and  civilization  that  the  student  may  be  led  to 
broaden  his  acquaintance  with  the  country  after  finishing 
his  school  course.  His  study  of  the  country  should  inspire 


70 

him  so  to  apply  the  lessons  learned  from  it  that  he  may 
better  understand  the  problems  of  his  own  country  and  be 
better  prepared  to  do  his  part  in  solving  them.  In  other 
words,  because  *of  his  study  he  should  become  a  better 
American  citizen. 

The  concrete  aim  of  the  teaching  of  French  in  the  junior 
and  the  senior  high  schools  may  be  best  expressed  in  the 
words  of  the  originators  of  the  reform  method:  "Correct 
pronunciation,  reading  ability  developed  by  means  of 
speaking  facility,  with  grammar  as  a  means  and  not  as  an 
end." 

While  ability  to  speak  is  to  be  regarded  as  secondary  to 
the  ability  to  read,  it  is  unjustifiable  and  unnecessary  for 
a  pupil  to  spend  from  two  to  four  years  on  the  study  of 
French  and  not  be  able  to  express  orally  simple  thoughts  in 
an  intelligible  manner. 

Summary  of  Aims. 

1.  To  pronounce  the  language  with  sufficient  accuracy 
to  appreciate  its  beauty  and  to  catch  its  spirit, 

2.  To  acquire  a  live,  working  vocabulary  that  can  be 
used  in  conversation  and  in  reading. 

3.  To  understand  the  structure  of  the  language. 

4.  To  obtain  a  better  command  of  English. 

5.  To  acquire  the  habit  of  reading  French  outeide  the 
classroom. 

6.  To  lay  a  basis  for  the  appreciation  of  French  litera- 
ture. 

7.  To  study  sympathetically  the  life  and  history  of  the 
French  people  in  France  and  in  America. 

8.  To  broaden  the  student's  horizon  and  make  him  a 
better  citizen. 

Standards. 

The  student  who  begins  French  in  the  junior  high 
school  and  continues  it  during  four  years  should  at  the  end 


71 

of  this  period  obtain  a  sufficient  mastery  of  the  language 
to  enable  him: 

1.  To    read    aloud    correctly    and    fluently    ordinary 
French. 

2.  To  carry  on  a  simple  conversation. 

3.  To  read  understandingly  and  without  translating  a 
passage  of  ordinary  narrative  or  easy  description.    Ability 
to  do  this  is  to  be  tested  by  a  resume,  preferably  in  French. 

4.  To  translate  accurately,  not  literally,  into  English 
the  thought  expressed  in  a  passage  of  medium  difficulty. 

5.  To  explain  the  usual  grammatical  constructions  in- 
volved in  conversation  and  reading. 

6.  To  write  with  approximate  correctness  from  dicta- 
tion, to  transcribe  simple  conversation,  and  to  write  with 
reasonable  accuracy  a  letter  or  a  free  composition  on  a 
subject  requiring  only  an  everyday  vocabulary. 

7.  To  show  a  reasonable  knowledge  of  French  customs 
and  of  the  leading  characters  and  events  of  French  history, 
including  the  experiences  and  achievements  of  the  French 
in  America. 

Reading  Requirements. 

8.  French  I:  fifty  to  one  hundred  pages. 
French  II:  two  hundred  pages. 
French  III:  four  hundred  pages. 
French  IV:  six  hundred  pages. 

Suggestions. 

DIRECT  METHOD. 

While  it  may  be  argued  that  the  teaching  of  a  foreign 
language  for  practical  uses  only  or  for  cultural  ends  exclu- 
sively is  not  justifiable,  it  must  be  admitted  that  when  the 
language  is  taught  in  such  a  manner  as  to  serve  both  pur- 
poses, the  time  given  to  such  study  is  well  spent.  To  ac- 
complish the  aims  of  the  French  course  and  to  meet  the 


72 

standards  prescribed,  a  direct  method  should  be  employed. 
The  teacher  should  choose  a  form  of  direct  method  which, 
when  rightly  used,  will  combine  all  the  advantages  claimed 
for  the  various  grammar,  translation,  or  natural  methods. 
The  method  should  also  be  adapted  to  the  age  of  the  pupils. 
It  should  capitalize  the  dramatic  instinct  of  the  adolescent 
and  his  desire  to  speak  a  language  other  than  his  own.  The 
study  of  a  foreign  language  in  the  junior  high  school  fol- 
lows naturally  and  supplements  the  work  in  English  of 
grades  five  and  six. 

The  work  of  the  first  year  must  be  taken  slowly  and 
thoroughly.  At  the  beginning  practically  all  of  it  must  be 
done  in  the  classroom  to  avoid  inaccuracies.  The  chief 
objection  to  most  direct  method  teaching,  even  when  done 
by  teachers  who  have  complete  mastery  of  the  language, 
is  that  it  lacks  definiteness  and  is  therefore  conducive  to 
superficiality.  The  teacher  must  keep  a  careful  and  de- 
tailed record  of  the  ground  covered  and  make  the  work 
cumulative.  In  no  other  way  is  it  possible  to  lay  a  broad 
and  solid  basis  for  future  work  in  the  language.  The  main 
purpose  of  the  instruction  of  the  first  two  years  is  the 
formation  of  habit,  not  the  acquiring  of  information.  We 
must  teach  the  language  and  not  about  the  language. 

Two  distinct  types  of  direct  method  are  in  common  use : 

(1)  The  object  method,  which  is  largely  descriptive.   The 
conversation  centers  about  people  and  objects  found  in  the 
classroom,  school,  home,  street,  etc.,  with  the  introduction 
of  details  as  to  size,  number,  color,  etc.    If  this  plan  is  fol- 
lowed, the  nouns  should  be  used  immediately  and   con- 
stantly with  verbs  other  than  to  be  or  to  have. 

(2)  The  series  method,  which  is  distinctly  narrative  and 
lays  the  emphasis  on  the  verb.    At  first  the  various  acts  of 
the  series  are  expressed  in  the  first  person  singular  of  the 
present  tense  and  are  arranged  chronologically.    Each  sen- 
tence answers  the  question,  "What  happens  next?"     The 
pupils  learn  the  series  by  heart,  reciting  it  singly  and  in 
concert.    So  far  as  is  possible  the  action  expressed  in  each 


73 

verb  is  performed  or  imitated  as  the  sentence  is  said. 
When  the  use  of  the  first  person  is  mastered,  the  series  is 
repeated  with  a  change  of  person  and,  when  necessary, 
with  a  corresponding  change  in  the  form  of  the  verb. 
Later  each  series  is  used  with  a  change  of  tense,  addition 
of  adjectives  and  adverbs,  and  various  other  modifications. 
By  this  method  conversation  and  practical  grammar  are 
taught  at  the  same  time. 

Conversation. 

The  primary  receptive  organ  of  speech  is  the  ear. 
Therefore,  the  speaking  of  a  language  furnishes  the  nat- 
ural and  logical  approach  both  to  reading  and  writing. 

Conversation  arouses  immediate  interest  and,  if  con- 
tinued faithfully,  proves  the  best  means  of  sustaining  it. 
Because  of  the  opportunity  for  self-activity  and  self- 
expression  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  the  socialized  recita- 
tion follows  as  a  natural  consequence.  The  study  furnishes 
its  own  motivation. 

All  directions  should  be  given  in  French  and,  whenever 
reasonable,  should  produce  an  oral,  as  well  as  physical, 
reaction  from  the  members  of  the  class.  The  pupils  should 
be  required  to  give  French  answers  to  questions  asked  in 
French.  This  is  practice  in  real  composition.  After  a  few 
weeks  French  should  be  the  language  of  the  classroom. 
The  pupils  should  be  permitted  to  use  French  only,  in 
speaking  to  one  another  while  in  the  room  and  should  be 
encouraged  to  keep  up  the  practice  whenever  they  meet. 
A  French  club  is  easily  organized  and  managed  and  is  a 
great  help  in  fostering  conversation.  The  enthusiastic 
teacher  who  is  prepared  for  her  work  and  is  consistent  in 
the  matter  of  speaking  French  in  the  class  and,  whenever 
possible,  outside  the  class,  will  find  no  lack  of  enthusiasm. 

Class  work  in  conversation  must  not  be  haphazard.  It 
must  be  purposeful  and  must  proceed  by  logical  steps.  At 
first  the  pupils'  answers  to  questions  should  be  in  the 
exact  words  given  them  by  the  teacher. 


74 

Common  sense  will  suggest  to  the  teacher  when  it  is 
wiser  to  use  English  than  to  waste  an  undue  amount  oi 
time  over  explanations  in  French.  It  will  usually  be  ad- 
visable to  restate  the  matter  in  French  for  the  sake  of  the 
final  impression. 

After  reading  has  begun,  the  conversation  should  be 
based  on  the  text.  At  first,  questions  will  be  so  framed  that 
the  answers  may  be  in  the  exact  words  of  the  passage  read. 
Complete  sentences  should  be  required  in  all  answers.  As 
soon  as  the  class  has  mastered  a  set  of  questions  and 
answers  orally,  they  should  be  written  on  the  board  by  the 
teacher  for  the  pupils  to  copy  into  their  notebooks.  The 
questionnaire  thus  obtained  should  be  used  for  further 
oral  practice  and  for  written  work,  including  dictation. 

Pronunciation. 

One  of  the  strongest  arguments  in  favor  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  foreign-language  study  into  the  lower  grades  is  the 
greater  ease  with  which  children  learn  to  pronounce  cor- 
rectly. While  greater  facility  could  undoubtedly  be  thus 
obtained,  the  majority  of  children  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
years  of  age  have  vocal  organs  sufficiently  plastic  and  are 
still  sufficiently  imitative  and  lacking  in  self-consciousness. 
to  justify  the  delay. 

Careful  attention  to  the  pronunciation  of  French  is  es- 
sential for  several  reasons: 

(1)  The  learner  is  forced  to  adopt  some  sort  of  name 
for  each  combination  of  letters  that  he  sees,  whether  he 
says  the  word  silently  or  audibly.  The  forming  of  a  cor- 
rect habit  at  the  start  (a)  makes  the  acquiring  of  a  satis- 
factory pronunciation  of  French  entirely  possible,  (b) 
obviates  the  necessity  of  the  teacher's  irritating  and  futile 
interruption  of  reading  to  correct  mistakes  during  the 
later  stages  of  the  course,  (c)  saves  an  incalculable  amount 
of  time,  (d)  prevents  the  pupils  from  becoming  discour- 
aged. 


75 

(2)  The  interest   of  the   pupils  is  far   greater.     The 
beauty   of  the   spoken   language   is  one   of  the   teacher's 
greatest  assets  and  should  not  be  lost.     It  makes  a  strong 
appeal  to  the   adolescent.     Furthermore,   boys  and   girls 
seem  to  know  instinctively  whether  their  French  sounds 
like  French  and  gauge  their  interest  accordingly.     Unless 
it  is  well  pronounced,  the  spirit  of  the  language  is  largely 
lost. 

(3)  If  the  pupil  is  to  understand  spoken  French  or 
make  himself  understood  by  French  people,  he  must  have 
an  adequate  pronunciation. 

Phonetics. 

The  teaching  of  pronunciation  should  rest  upon  a  strong 
phonetic  basis.  This  is  a  fundamental  principle  as  well  as 
one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  direct-method  teaching. 
The  thoroughness  with  which  the  sounds  of  the  language 
should  be  taught  cannot  be  overemphasized.  In  teaching 
pronunciation,  the  American  teacher,  who  has  a  good  work- 
ing knowledge  of  phonetics,  may  easily  prove  superior  to 
the  native  teacher  who  does  not  understand  the  difficulties 
encountered  by  American  pupils.  Young  children  are  able 
to  catch  the  sounds  by  imitation,  but  those  of  junior  high 
school  age  or  over  must  be  taught  the  conscious  use  of  the 
organs  of  speech. 

While  every  pupil  must  receive  individual  attention, 
drill  in  concert,  especially  on  new  sounds,  is  strongly  rec- 
ommended. The  drill  in  unison  should  not  continue  so 
long  that  some  of  the  members  of  the  class  will  acquire  the 
habit  of  letting  the  rest  of  the  class  do  all  the  work.  Daily 
practice  during  the  first  half-year  should  be  given  on 
vowels,  syllables,  words,  breath-groups,  and  sentences,  and 
special  attention  paid  to  intonation.  Until  sufficient  drill 
has  been  given  to  make  the  pronunciation  of  the  French 
sounds  and  their  combinations  absolutely  automatic,  the 
class  should  not  see  a  French  word  or  even  a  letter.  The 


76 

greatest  obstacle  to  acquiring  a  correct  French  accent  is 
the  visual  resemblance  of  French  to  English,  since  there 
is  not  a  syllable  in  French  that  has  an  exact  oral  counter- 
part in  English. 

When  the  class  has  thoroughly  mastered  the  formation 
of  the  sounds  and  when  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  spoken 
language  has  been  obtained  to  make  the  beginning  of  read- 
ing and  writing  advisable,  time  should  be  taken  for  the 
transition  from  oral  to  written  work. 

Transition  Period. 

This  is  the  crucial  point  in  the  plan  thus  far  outlined. 
If  the  transition  is  not  successfully  made,  much  of  the 
value  of  the  phonetic  drill  will  be  lost.  The  following  is 
suggested  as  a  mode  of  procedure : 

The  teacher  names  a  vowel  sound,  has  the  class  repeat  it 
after  her,  and  then  writes  on  the  board  the  letter  or  com- 
bination of  letters  composing  the  sound.  The  class  names 
the  sound  again.  A  second  sound  is  taken  up  in  the  same 
manner.  The  exercise  continues  in  this  way  until  all  the 
vowel  sounds  and  combinations,  including  nasals,  have  been 
written  by  the  teacher  and  pronounced  many  times  by  the 
class.  After  a  sound  is  written,  the  teacher  reviews  the 
sounds  already  represented  on  the  board.  The  next  step 
consists  of  drill  on  vowel  sounds  in  combination  with  con- 
sonants. At  this  point  the  French  alphabet  should  be 
learned,  to  lay  a  basis  for  spelling  in  French.  Practice 
should  be  given  in  naming  both  vowels  and  consonants  as 
the  teacher  writes  them  on  the  board,  singly,  in  syllables, 
and  in  easy  words.  All  the  French  that  has  been  learned 
orally  and  has  become  a  means  of  expressing  thought 
should  be  reduced  to  writing  by  the  teacher  and  copied 
by  the  pupils  into  their  notebooks.  At  first  the  teacher 
will  write  the  materials  in  the  presence  of  the  class,  re- 
quiring the  pupils  to  read  with  the  same  accuracy  of  sound- 
formation  and  intonation  that  they  have  been  accustomed 


77 

to  use  before  seeing  French.  The  material  of  the  note- 
books will  be  used  for  practice  in  reading  and  for  dictation. 

After  the  writing  point  has  been  reached,  great  em- 
phasis should  be  placed  on  the  division  of  words  into  syl- 
lables both  for  the  sake  of  pronunciation  and  to  avoid 
difficulty  in  spelling.  The  French  names  of  the  letters 
should  be  used  from  the  start,  and  care  should  be  taken 
that  they  are  properly  uttered. 

The  memorizing  of  poems,  songs,  and  anecdotes  is  rec- 
ommended for  their  value  in  perfecting  pronunciation  and 
in  rendering  the  spirit  of  the  language. 

Phonetic  symbols  should  not  be  used  with  the  class,  but 
the  teacher  should  be  sufficiently  familiar  with  them  to  be 
able  to  read  the  transcription  employed  by  the  Interna- 
tional Phonetic  Association. 

Reading. 

In  teaching  children  to  read  their  mother  tongue,  it  has 
been  found  that  the  emphasis  at  first  should  be  upon 
thought  rather  than  form.  The  same  is  true  in  the  case  of 
a  foreign  language.  If  the  transition  from  oral  to  written 
work  described  under  the  section  on  Phonetics  is  success- 
fully made,  a  long  step  has  been  taken  toward  reading 
without  translating.  The  French  learned  orally  becomes 
the  first  material  for  reading. 

The  use  of  pictures  will  be  found  helpful.  By  carefully 
prepared  questions  the  teacher  will  utilize  the  French 
already  acquired  by  the  class  to  bring  out  as  much  as  pos- 
sible of  the  story  contained  in  the  picture,  adding  such 
details  as  she  desires.  She  will  then  write  the  story  on  the 
board,  the  pupils  reading  each  sentence  aloud  as  soon  as 
she  has  written  it  and  later  copying  it  into  their  note- 
books. The  recitation  of  the  next  day  will  be  upon  this 
story.  It  will  consist  of  oral  and  written  answers  to  ques- 
tions. On  another  day  the  story  will  be  told  or  written 
from  memory. 


78 

If  the  teacher  is  not  prepared  to  use  conversation  as  the 
approach  to  reading,  she  will  choose  a  book  carefully  ar- 
ranged for  beginners  and  containing  an  interesting  story 
with  questions  and  grammatical  drill  based  upon  it.  She 
will  permit  as  little  translation  as  possible,  especially  at 
first, 

By  a  strictly  direct  method  in  a  four  years'  course  a  text 
would  not  be  introduced  before  the  end  of  the  fourth  or 
fifth  month.  Every  book  chosen  should  be  thoroughly 
French  and  deal  with  the  life  of  French-speaking  people. 

After  sufficient  practice  in  reading  the  pupils  will  pre- 
pare and  ask  their  classmates  questions  on  a  passage  read 
and  later  on  an  episode  or  a  whole  story.  This  kind  of 
work  leads  naturally  to  the  giving  of  oral  and  written  sum- 
maries. 

Reading  should  be  both  intensive  and  extensive.  It 
should  be  interesting  to  the  pupils  and  varied  in  character. 
Fiction,  plays,  and  history  should  be  represented  in  the 
choice  of  texts. 

After  the  second  year,  supplementary  reading  should 
be  done  outside  of  class.  This  reading  should  be  done 
for  the  sake  of  the  story.  The  pupils  should  be  instructed 
to  look  up  only  the  words  necessary  to  get  the  sense  or 
which  arouse  interest  as  to  their  meaning.  In  Class  III 
there  should  be  at  least  two  hundred  pages  and  in  Class 
IV  three  hundred  pages  of  supplementary  reading  in  addi- 
tion to  the  regular  requirement. 

Every  class  that  has  had  French  a  half-year  or  more 
should  have  access  to  French  newspapers  and  magazines. 
These  may  be  profitably  used  as  sources  of  material  for 
conversation  and  reports.  In  the  daily  exercises  of  French 
classes  there  should  be  reports  by  teacher  and  pupils  of 
current  French  history.  The  teacher  who  limits  her  work 
to  the  study  of  French  language  and  French  literature, 
misses  a  great  opportunity. 


79 


Translation. 


French  into  English.  After  the  habit  of  thinking  in 
Prench  is  firmly  fixed,  frequent  translation  into  idiomatic 
English  should  be  required.  It  should  not  be  looked  upon 
as  a  method  of  teaching  reading  but  as  a  means  of  testing 
the  pupil's  understanding  of  the  text.  The  teacher  should 
never  hesitate  to  call  for  the  translation  of  a  passage  if 
she  has  any  doubt  as  to  the  pupil's  taking  in  the  thought. 

Translation  affords  excellent  training  in  the  choice  of 
words.  It  may  be  extremely  valuable  as  an  exercise  in 
English  and  should  be  correlated  with  the  work  of  the 
English  department  of  the  school.  From  time  to  time  writ- 
ten translations  should  be  passed  upon  by  the  teacher  of 
French  for  accuracy  of  thought,  and  by  the  teacher  of  Eng- 
lish for  the  form  of  expression.  If  teachers  of  French  bear 
in  mind  constantly  that  they  are  teaching  a  living  tongue 
and  not  dissecting  a  dead  body  of  language  facts,  they  will 
be  in  little  danger  of  overdoing  translation. 

English  into  French.  There  should  be  very  little  trans- 
lation from  English  into  French,  as  this  process  is  the 
greatest  hindrance  to  acquiring  the  habit  of  thinking  in  the 
foreign  language.  Students  preparing  for  college  ex- 
aminations must  be  given  special  training  in  so-called  com- 
position during  the  last  year  of  their  course.  This  should 
be  based  on  passages  of  simple  idiomatic  French.  Constant 
practice  in  oral  and  written  French  is  the  best  drill  in  real 
composition. 

Grammar. 

In  the  direct  method,  grammar  is  not  neglected.  It  is 
not  taught  as  a  separate  science  with  disconnected  sen- 
tences invented  to  illustrate  rules,  but  is  made  to  serve  as  a 
guide  to  correctness  of  expression.  To  this  end  it  must  be 
taught  inductively.  From  the  first  lessons  changes  in 
grammatical  forms  are  introduced,  and  the  habit  of  using 
correctly  different  persons,  numbers,  genders,  tenses,  nega- 


80 

tives,  etc.,  is  acquired.  A  few  points  taught  slowly  and 
mastered  thoroughly  are  of  more  value  than  much  ground 
covered  hastily.  After  the  pupils  have  become  familiar 
with  correct  French,  they  are  led  to  discover  the 
principles  and  formulate  the  rules  of  construction.  Before 
the  end  of  the  course  the  principles  and  rules  should  be 
systematized  and  reviewed.  For  this  purpose  a  formal 
French  grammar  will  be  found  of  value. 

Dictation. 

No  other  single  exercise  has  the  potential  value  of  dicta- 
tion. It  combines  ear-training,  thought-getting,  and  the 
application  of  grammatical  principles.  From  the  time  the 
class  begins  to  write,  there  should  be  almost  daily  practice 
in  this  exercise  throughout  the  course.  At  first  it  should 
consist  of  questions  and  answers  or  connected  passages 
carefully  studied.  After  the  second  year  both  prepared 
and  unprepared  dictations  are  desirable. 

Accessories. 

The  following  illustrative  material  is  suggested:  books 
of  songs,  lantern  slides,  photographs,  foreign  post  cards, 
maps,  plans  of  cities,  wall  pictures  showing  French  scenes 
and  architecture,  copies  of  works  of  art,  illustrated  books, 
reviews,  and  newspapers. 

The  use  of  the  phonograph  is  recommended,  not  for  any 
of  the  so-called  language-phone  methods,  but  to  reproduce 
French  songs  and  especially  recitations  by  masters  of 
French  diction. 

Correspondence  with  French  students  is  highly  valuable 
when  each  student  writes  carefully  in  his  own  language. 

The  desirability  of  forming  French  clubs  has  already 
been  mentioned.  Games,  charades,  and  simple  plays  may 
be  used  to  stimulate  interest  and  furnish  practice  in  speak- 
ing French. 


81 

Bibliography. 

The  books  listed  here  are  in  no  way  prescribed  but  are 
merely  suggested  for  use  with  a  direct  method. 

BEGINNERS  BY  OBJECT  METHOD. 

Batch elor:  Mon  Premier  Livre  de  Francais  (Clarendon 
Press). 

Dubrule:  Le  Francais  pour  Tous  (Ginn). 

"Walter  and  Ballard :  Beginners'  French,  revised  edition 
(Scribner).  (For  beginners  in  senior  high  school.) 

SOURCE  BOOKS  FOR   SERIES   METHOD. 

Gouin :  Art  of  Teaching  and  Studying  Languages  (Long- 
mans, Green). 

Themoin :  Premier  et  Deuxieme  Livres  pour  les  Enfants ; 
Cours  de  Francais  pour  Adultes  (Hachette). 

METHOD  BASED  ON  READING. 

Meras:  Le  Premier  Livre;  Le  Second  Livre  (American 
Book  Co.). 

BOOKS  CONTAINING  MATERIAL  FOR  TEACHER  *S  USE  WITH  CLASS. 

Alge,  Rippman  and  Buell:  First  French  Book  (Newson). 

Armand :  Grammaire  Elementaire  (Heath). 

Bruce:  Dictees  Franchises  (Heath)  ;  Grammaire  Fran- 
gaise  (Heath). 

Fraser  and  Squair:  French  Grammar,  complete  edition 
(Heath). 

La  Fontaine:  One  Hundred  Fables  (Ginn). 

Larive  et  Fleury:  La  Deuxieme  Annee  de  Grammaire 
(Colin,  Paris). 

Rippmann  and  Buell:  Frendr  Daily  Life  (Newson). 

Super:  Anecdotes  Faciles  (Heath). 

Chansons  de  France  and  Vieilles  Chansons  et  Rondes 
(Plon,  Paris). 


82 
Reading. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

Ballard:  Short  Stories  for  Oral  French  (Scribner). 

Bierman  and  Frank:  Conversational  French  Reader 
(Allyn  &  Bacon). 

Bruce:  Lectures  Faciles  (Heath). 

Capus:  Pour  Charmer  nos  Petits  (Heath). 

Guerber:  Contes  et  Legendes,  Part  I  (American  Book 
Co.). 

Malot:  Sans  Famille  in  Le  Premier  Livre  (American 
Book  Co.). 

Meras  and  Roth:  Petits  Contes  de  France  (American 
Book  Co.).  (Or  first  half  of  second  year.) 

deSegur:  Les  Malheurs  de  Sophie,  edited  by  Bement 
(Sanborn). 

Snow  and  Lebon:  Easy  French  (Heath). 

SECOND  YEAR. 

Benton:  Easy  French  Plays  (Scott). 

Bruno:  Le  Tour  de  la  France  (American  Book  Co/), 
(Heath),  (Holt). 

Daudet:  Le  Petit  Chose  (Heath)  ;  Neuf  Contes  Choisis 
(Holt). 

David:  Chez  Nous  (Holt). 

Dupres:  Drames  et  Comedies  (American  Book  Co.). 

Fontaine:  En  France  (Heath). 

Francois  et  Giroud :  Easy  French  Reading  (Holt)  ;  Sim- 
ple French  (Holt). 

Genin:  Le  Petit  Tailleur  Bouton  (Heath). 

Halevy:  Labbe  Constantin  (American  Book  Co.), 
(Ginn),  (Heath),  (Holt). 

Labiche  et  Martin:  Le  Voyage  de  Monsieur  Perrichon 
(American  Book  Co.),  (Ginn),  (Heath),  (Holt);  La 
Poudre  aux  Yeux  (American  Book  Co.),  (Heath),  (Holt). 

Lazare:  Contes  et  Nouvelles  (Ginn). 

Porchat:  Le  Berger  et  le  Proscrit  (Clarendon  Press). 

Super:  French  Reader  (Heath). 


83 


THIRD  YEAR. 

About:  Le  Boi  des  Montagnes,  abridged  edition  (Holt). 

Allen  and  Schoell:  French  Life  (Holt).  (Basis  for  con- 
versation. ) 

Bazin :  Le  Ble  qui  Leve  (Holt) . 

Coppee:  On  Rend  1'Argent  (Ginn). 

Cramer:  Ca  et  La  en  France  (American  Book  Co.). 

Daudet:  Tartarin  de  Tarascon  (American  Book  Co.), 
(Ginn),  (Heath). 

Erckmann-Chatrian :  Le  Conscrit  de  1813  (Heath), 
(Holt). 

France:  Le  Livre  de  Mon  Ami  (Holt). 

Laurie:  Memoires  d'un  Collegien  (American  Book  Co.). 

Lavisse:  Histoire  de  France,  cours  elementaire  (Heath). 
(Recommended  for  careful  study;  could  be  read  in  second 

year.) 

Mairet:  La  Petite  Princesse  (American  Book  Co.). 

Merimee:  Colomba  (Ginn),  (Heath),  (Holt). 

Osgood:  La  France  Hero'ique  (Heath). 

Scribe:  Bataille  de  Dames  (Heath). 

FOURTH  YEAR. 

Bazin:  Les  Oberle  (Heath). 

Dumas:  Le  Comte  de  Monte  Cristo  (Holt)  ;  La  Tulipe 
Noire  (Heath). 

France:  Le  Crime  de  Sylvestre  Bonnard  (Holt). 

Hugo:  Quatre-Vingt-Treize  (Holt);  Les  Miserables 
(Holt). 

Lamartine:  Jeanne  d'Arc  (Hachette). 

Loti:  Peecheur  d'Islande  (Heath). 

Maupassant:  Huit  Contes  Choisis  (Heath). 

Moraud:  Sous  les  Armes  (HoltV: 

Sandeau:  Mile,  de  la  Seigliere  (Holt). 

Super:  Histoire  de  France  (Holt). 

Verne:  Tour  du  Monde  en  Quartre-Vingts  Jours 
(Heath). 

deVigny :  La  Canne  de  Jonc  (Heath). 


PEDAGOGY   AND  REFERENCE. 

Bahlsen:  The  Teaching  of '"Modern  Languages  (Ginn). 

Breul:  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Foreign  Languages 
(Cambridge,  Univ.  Press). 

Geddes:  French  Pronunciation  (Oxford,  Univ.  Press). 
An  excellent,  practical  treatise. 

Gouin:  Art  of  Teaching  and  Studying  Languages  (Long- 
mans, Green).  Should  be  read  and  studied  by  every  teacher 
of  languages. 

Handschih:  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  the 
United  States  (Bureau  of  Education,  No.  510).  Historical 
treatise  with  exhaustive  bibliography. 

Jespersen:  How  to  Teach  a  Foreign  Language  (Macmil- 
lan). 

Jousset:  La  France  geographique  illustree  (2  vols.)  (La- 
rousse,  Paris). 

Krause :  Direct  Method  in  Modern  Languages  (Scrib- 
ner).  A  strong  plea  for  direct  method. 

Larousse:  Petit  Larousse  Illustre.  (An  all-French  dic- 
tionary. ) 

Methods  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages,  edition  of  1915 
(Heath).  Especially  important  chapters  by  Wm.  B.  Snow, 
pp.  109  and  144;  W.  R.  Price,  p.  124;  E.  Spanhoofd,  p.  207. 

Passy-Hempl:  International  French  Dictionary  (Hinds, 
Noble).  Pronunciation  indicated  in  phonetic  transcription. 

Rousselot  et  Laclotte :  Precis  de  Prononciation  Francaise 
(Weller,  Paris).  A  thoroughly  scientific  exposition  of 
standard  pronunciation. 

Walter :  French  Lessons.  A  demonstration  of  the  direct 
method  ( Scribner ) . 

Yersin,  M.  and  J. :  Phono-rhythmic  Method  of  Pronun- 
ciation (Lippincott).  Popular  and  practical. 

CHAPTERS  FROM  EDUCATIONAL  TREATISES. 

Hollister:  High  School  and  Class  Management,  XVIII 

(Heath). 


85 

Inglis:  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  XIII 
(Houghton,  Mifflin). 

Johnston:  High  School  Education,  XIV   (Scribner). 

Judd:  Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects,  X   (Ginn). 

Monroe:  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  XI  (Mac- 
millan). 

Snedden:  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  XIV 
(Houghton,  Mifflin). 

SPANISH. 

The  elimination  of  German  courses  in  high  schools  has 
opened  the  way  for  a  second  foreign  language  in  school 
programs.  Spanish  has  a  worthy  literature  and  is  with 
English  the  great  language  of  the  Americas.  When  intro- 
duced in  the  lower  classes  of  secondary  schools,  the  ped- 
agogy should  follow  closely  the  suggestions  given  for 
similar  French  courses. 

In  this  program,  two  courses  are  planned  for  boys  of  the 
upper  years  of  the  Commerce  and  Business  curricula.  The 
design  of  these  courses  is  to  familiarize  boys,  who  are  pre- 
paring for  business  and  clerical  positions,  with  the  com- 
mercial language  of  Central  and  South  America.  A 
necessary  part  of  these  courses  should  be  much  study  of 
the  history,  the  geography  and  the  life  of  the  countries  of 
Spanish  America. 

There  should  be  extensive  reading  and  the  following 
standards  are  tentative  only : 

Spanish     V:  300  pages. 
Spanish  VI:  500  pages. 


86 
CHAPTER  III. 


SOCIAL  SCIENCES. 
HISTORY  AND  CIVICS  I  AND  II. 


Aim. 


These  courses  aim  to  appeal  strongly  to  the  idealized 
imagination  of  children  in  the  beginning  of  the  adolescent 
period.  The  courses  center  about  (1)  great  leaders,  (2) 
dramatic  deeds,  (3)  manners  and  methods  of  living,  and 
concern  themselves  little  with  formal  outlines,  with  cause 
and  effect,  with  presidential  administrations  and  with 
logical  development. 

By  stories,  study,  pictures  and  dramatization,  the 
teacher  leads  the  boy  through  the  heroic  past  of  history 
while  he  relives  heroic  deeds  and  in  his  day  dreams  is 
Raleigh  throwing  his  coat  before  the  majestic  queen  or 
Balboa  looking  over  the  uncharted  sea,  ''silent  upon  a 
peak  in  Darien, "  and  the  girl  is  Priscilla  at  the  wheel  or 
Pocahontas  in  the  lodge  of  her  tribe.  By  study,  observa- 
tion and  participation,  the  teacher  of  civics  brings  her 
pupils  to  realize  their  intimate  connection  with,  and  partic- 
ipation in,  the  life  of  the  community  and  the  state. 

Standards. 

1.  The  careful  study  of  the  history  of  the  United  States. 

2.  The  weekly  study  of  current  history. 

3.  The  study  of  the  government  of  town  or  city,  of  state 
and  nation. 

4.  The  reading  of  the  constitution  of  the  state. 

Suggestions. 

1.  An  adequate  outline  for  this  course  is  printed  on 
pages  94  to  104  of  the  elementary  program.  It  does  not 
seem  necessary  to  repeat  it  here  but  throughout  additions 


87 

should  be  made  to  make  clear  the  vital  part  New  Hamp- 
shire has  played  in  the  nation's  story.  The  following 
topics  and  others  should  be  added  to  the  outline  under  the 
sections  indicated : 

Grade   VII:    I,    John   Smith    and    the   Isles   of    Shoals. 

II,  The    Scotch-Irish    in    Ireland    and    New    Hampshire, 

III,  The  New  Hampshire  Indians,  their  villages,  chiefs  and 
life.      IV,    Beginnings    of    the    Vermont-New    Hampshire 
boundary  dispute.     New  Hampshire's  iron  mines.     Wal- 
dron.      Rogers.      Stark.      Sullivan.      Langdon.      Belknap. 
William  Pepperell  at  Louisburg.    V,  Colonial  life  in  New 
Hampshire.     New  Hampshire  border  towns  through   one 
hundred  years  of  Indian  warfare.     Grade  VIII:     I,  New 
Hampshire  tea  parties.     The  pine  tree  riot.     The  capture 
of  Fort  William  and  Mary.   Bunker  Hill.   The  New  Hamp- 
shire grants.     II,  The  New  Hampshire  loyalists.     Ill,  Fi- 
nancial difficulty  in  New  Hampshire  under  the  confeder- 
acy.    Attempted  secession  of  New  Hampshire  towns.     V, 
New  Hampshire  canals  and  post  roads.     VII,  New  Hamp- 
shire railroads  and  the  coming  of  the  Irish.     VIII,   The 
war  factories  and  the  coming  of  the  French   Canadians. 
XII,  Immigration  from  the  Mediterranean  states. 

In  these  courses  teachers  must  lead  classes  to  a  sympa- 
thetic interest  in  all  races  which  form  the  citizenship  of 
our  new  New  Hampshire.  From  the  texts  and  from  the 
instruction  must  be  eliminated  all  references  or  statements 
which  would  perpetuate  suspicion,  distrust  or  hatred  that 
exists  between  nations  and  has  been  fostered  by  some  teach- 
ers and  some  books  against  the  mother  country,  England, 
or  the  great  northern  sister,  Canada.  Classes  should  also 
be  taught  the  heroic  history  and  the  inspiring  ideals  of  the 
newer  racial  elements  of  our  state :  as  the  Irish,  the  Cana- 
dian French,  the  Greek,  the  Italian,  the  ^  Scandinavian,  the 
Lithuanian  and  the  Armenian.  It  is  recognized  that 
schools  should  devote  a  week  or  more  to  the  study  of  the 
states  of  Central  and  South  America,  and  at  least  two 
weeks  to  the  study  of  Canada  that  broader  interests  may 


88 

be  developed  in  the  greater  America.  The  teacher  can 
find  material  in  the  Geographic  Magazine,  in  books  of 
travel,  in  Shepherd's  Latin  America  and  in  the  History  of 
Canada  published  by  the  Department  of  Education  at 
Toronto. 

2.  The  current  history,  which  must  be  a  part  of  the 
work  of  years  I  and  II,  may  well  be  combined  with  the 
history  of  these  two  years.    In  this  connection  elementary 
geography  is  to  be  retained  and  made  vital.     The  school- 
room atlases  and  maps  should  be  used  to  locate  all  places 
under  discussion. 

3.  There  are  now  upon  the  market  a  number  of  inter- 
esting texts,  entitled  "Community  Civics."     These  should 
be  introduced  for  reading  and  discussion  but  the  instruc- 
tion should  lead  to  the  book  and  not  from  it.     It  shouid 
be  based  upon  the  political  and  civic  affairs  of  the  town 
where   the   children   live.      The  spring   repairing  of  local 
roads,  the  preparation  of  the  family  inventory  for  the  use 
of  the  assessors,  the  health  officer  as  he  enforces  vaccina- 
tion, give  the  proper  start  toward  the  teaching  of  trans- 
portation, taxation  and  public  health  and  make  intelligible 
the  discussion  of  texts  available  for  class  use.    During  the 
year  the  alert  teacher  can  find  in  local  activities  the  proper 
approach  to  all  the  subjects  generally  listed  under  Civics. 

4.  The  law  requires  the  reading  of  the  constitution  of 
New  Hampshire  and  of  the  United  States  during  the  last 
year  of  this    course.     The  spirit  of  this  requirement  may 
be  met  if  the  class  is  led  to  an  interest  in  the  responsibili- 
ties and  work  of  the  legislative,  executive  and  judicial  de- 
partments of  the  state.    This  may  be  done  in  part  by  visits 
to  the  state  capitol  and  to  state  institutions,  and  in  part  by 
well-prepared  expositions  by  the  teacher. 

HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION  III. 

Since  satisfactory  courses  in  ancient  history,  European 
history  and  English  history  are  outlined  at  length  in  the 
secondary  program  of  1915,  they  are  not  repeated  here  as 


89 

they  are  available  for  all  schools  that  wish  to  continue  to 
give  these  courses.  Most  pupils  have  in  their  upper  high 
school  only  two  history  courses,  one  in  ancient  history  and 
the  one  in  United  States  constitutional  history.  For  this 
reason  it  has  seemed  best  in  this  program  to  reorganize 
the  course  in  ancient  history  into  the  course  in  history  of 
civilization  which  follows. 

Aim. 

This  is  a  first-year  course  in  history  designed  to  cover 
the  whole  historic  field  and  to  show  from  what  sources, 
by  what  means  and  through  what  experiences  man  has 
come  to  his  present  degree  of  civilization.  It  will  natur- 
ally be  followed  by  the  sixth-year  course  in  constitutional 
history,  a  course  which  shows  the  development  and  appli- 
cation of  our  ideals  of  representative  government  and  per- 
sonal freedom. 

Standards. 

1.  The  completion  of  a  satisfactory  textbook  of  ancient 
history  and  one  of  European  history  with  the  additions 
and  exceptions  given  below. 

2.  Supplementary  reading  at  least  equal  in  amount  to 
the  textbook  work. 

3.  Board  and  map  work. 

4.  Constant  reference  to  events  of  modern  history. 

Suggestions. 

The  study  should  center  upon : 

A.  The  lives  and  deeds  of  great  leaders. 

B.  Dramatic   incidents  and   romantic   movements. 

C.  The  lives  of  the  peoples  who  have  contributed  to 
our  civilization. 

Each  pupil  should  be  provided  with  a  good  ancient  his- 
tory and  a  good  medieval  and  modern  or  European  his- 


90 

tory.  In  addition  the  room  should  be  furnished  with 
many  of  the  simpler  histories,  biographies  and  books  of 
travel.  It  should  also  have  maps,  atlases  and  magazines 
of  current  history  and  geography,  as  the  Geographic 
Magazine,  Travel  and  the  Literary  Digest. 

Class  assignments  should  be  topical  and  in  conformity 
with  the  chapter  on  "The  Teaching  of  Any  Topic"  as 
given  in  this  program.  The  books  in  the  hands  of  the 
pupils  should  not  be  studied  page  by  page  and  the  "rec- 
itation" ought  to  occupy  less  than  one-third  of  the 
time.  Much  of  the  material  in  these  books  should  be 
omitted  so  that  the  teacher  may  select  the  parts  suitable 
for  the  work  of  this  year.  After  preparation  the  teacher, 
orally,  should  present  the  new  topic,  should  direct  the 
class  to  the  proper  sources  and  should  guide  pupils  in 
their  study.  The  vocabulary  of  the  ordinary  textbook  in 
ancient  history  or  European  history  is  beyond  the  com- 
prehension of  first -year  classes. 

Every  teacher  should  also  have  the  detailed  outline  of 
this  course,  with  accompanying  bibliography,  given  in  In- 
stitute Circular  No.  90. 

I.     The  Beginnings  of  Culture,  10  periods. 

A.  The  Tree  Dwellers.     Show  here  how  man  separated 
himself  from   other   animals   by   inventing   language   and 
simple  tools  and  bequeathing  these  to  his  descendants.     It 
was  the  period  of  the  individual. 

B.  The  Cave  Dwellers.    At  this  time  man  invented  fire 
and  clothing.     The  cave  life  made  society  desirable,  pro- 
duced the  clan  and  modified  man's  physical  form. 

C.  The  Lake  and  Sea  Dwellers.     Man  found   a  new 
source  of  food  supply  and  overcame  the  barriers  that  had 
confined  him  to  a  restricted  home. 

Sufficient  material  for  the  above  topics  will  be  found 
in  elementary  readers,  in  the  introduction  to  various  an- 


91 

cient  histories  and  in  books  of  travel,  geographical  read- 
ers and  magazines.  In  each  case  the  approach  should  be 
through  the  backward  peoples  of  today  who  live  under 
these  primitive  conditions.  Then  it  should  be  shown  that 
this  condition  was  once  universal. 

II.     The  White  Race,  10  periods. 

A.  The  Herdsmen.     Consider  the  domestication  of  an- 
imals as  told  in  the  introductory  chapters  of  ancient  his- 
tories  and   in   the   encyclopedias.      Show   the    changes   in 
bodily     form     that     evolution     and     domestication     have 
brought  to  the  horse  and  the  dog.     Study  the  life  of  the 
herdsmen  of  our  own  western  plains  and  of  Australia,  also 
that  of  the  Arabs  and  the  South  African  cattlemen.     Re- 
call the  Biblical  stories  of  tribal  life.     This  period  devel- 
oped from  the  clan,  the  tribe,  ruled  by  a  patriarch  and  by 
making  constant  the  supply  of  food,  rendered  advance  in 
culture  possible. 

B.  The  Temperate  Lands.     The  beginnings  of  civilized 
life  were  doubtless  in  the  tropics  where  the  struggle  for 
natural  existence  was  easy  but  the  time  came  when  rest- 
less  and    ambitious    men   having   forced    their    way    into 
temperate  lands  found  there  conditions  of  life  that  made 
rapid  advance  possible. 

C.  The  Farmer.     Study  the  work  of  Luther  Burbank 
and  others  who  show  how  foods  and  fruits  are  developed 
from  wild  stocks.     Recall  the  history  of  the  potato,  to- 
bacco and  Indian  corn.     From  the  encyclopedia  and  other 
sources  teach  the  origin  of  our  common  fruits  and  vege- 
tables.    Then  show  that  the  domestication  of  plants  first 
made  passible  a  fixed  home  and  the  permanent  family  as 
we  know  it  now. 

D.  To  Europe.     In  this  way  a  white  race  had  devel- 
oped in  the  temperate  lands  of  West  Central  Asia.     This 
stock  multiplied  and  from  this  source  spread  as  the  more 


92 

vigorous  families  set  out  to  find  land  for  new  homes. 
Some  went  south  into  India, — the  Hindus, — some  south- 
west into  Persia,  some  west  through  Asia  Minor  and 
founded  the  southern  European  nations.  Still  others  went 
west,  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and,  as  Franks,  Teutons 
and  Slavs,  became  the  ancestors  of  the  northern  European 
people.  Compare  with  this  the  settlement  of  this  country 
on  its  seaboard  by  different  races  and  the  gradual  winning 
of  the  west  by  migrating  families. 

III.  The  Other  Races,  5  periods. 

A.  The  Black  Race.     Make  some  study  of  the  African 
negro.     He  has  language,  fire,  simple  tools  and  some  do- 
mesticated plants  and  animals  but  he  has  remained  in  the 
enervating  tropics  and  has  been  distanced  by  the  white 
race.     His  contribution  to  our  civilization  has  been  labor, 
sometimes  free  but  often  slave. 

B.  The  Yellow  Race.     Several  days  should  be  spent  in 
making  plain  that  the  yellow  race  has  developed  a  civiliza- 
tion different  and  distinct  from  the  white  race.     This  civ- 
ilization has  contributed  little  to  our  own  as  the  two  have 
seldom  come  in  contact. 

IV.  The  Early  Nations,  15  periods. 

A.  The  Egyptians.     Study  particularly  the  geographic 
reasons   for   an   early   advance    in   civilization   in   Egypt. 
Study  also  the  life  of  this  people,  their  religion,  pyramids, 
tombs  and  customs. 

B.  The  Assyrians  and  Others.     The  special  study  is  of 
the   buildings,   the   cuneiform   writings   and  the   religious 
ideas  that  influenced  the  Hebrew  faith  and  persisted  as 
medieval  superstitions. 

C.  The  Hebrews.     The  study  of  these  periods  should 
center   about  Abraham  and  the  patriarchs,   about   Moses 


93 

and  the  Exodus  and  about  David  and  Solomon.  Make  it 
evident  that  the  great  gift  of  this  race  to  civilization  has 
been  religion.  From  the  Hebrews  have  come  two  great 
religions  of  today, — Judaism  and  Christianity, — and  from 
the  Semitic  cousins  of  the  Hebrews — the  Arabians — has 
come  the  Mohammedan  religion. 

D.  The  Phoenicians  and  Others.  They  were  the  first 
navigators,  the  first  international  traders  and  they  gave  us 
our  alphabet. 

V.  The  Greeks,  20  periods. 

A.  Early  Society.     This  should  be  a  study  of  the  life 
depicted  in  the  Odyssey.    The  teacher  should  select  appro- 
priate passages  and  tell  them  to  the  class  and  the  class 
should  read  extensively  in  Palmer's  Translation. 

B.  Spartan  Life.     Briefly  present  the  ideals  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Spartans. 

C.  Athens.     Center  this  study  about  (1)  the  dramatic 
events   of  the   Persian  Wars  and  the   leaders   Miltiades, 
Themistocles,   Aristides.      (2)    Pericles   and   his   splendid 
city.     (3)  Alcibiades  and  the  Civil  War.     (4)  Great  men, 
thinkers  and  writers  as  Socrates  and  Demosthenes. 

D.  Philip  and  Alexander.     Spend  much  time  on  the 
stories  that  cluster  about  these  two  men. 

E.  The  Greek  Contribution.     Determine  that  the  con- 
tribution of  the  Greeks  is  in  art,  literature  and  ideals  of 
personal  freedom. 

VI.  The  Romans,  20  periods. 

A.  The  Early  People.     Read  Macauley's  Lays  of  An- 
cient Rome  to  understand  the  simple  life  of  a  sturdy  peo- 
ple. 

B.  Hannibal  and  the  Carthaginian  Wars. 


94 

C.  Caesar,  Master  of  Men. 

D.  Augustus,  the  Emperor. 

E.  The  Roman  Contribution.    Determine  that  the  con- 
tribution of  the  Romans  was  of  their  ideals  as  builders, 
conquerors,  rulers  and  law  givers. 

VII.  Christianity  and  the  Hebrew  Genius,  5  periods. 

A.  Paul,  the  Missionary. 

B.  Christianity  feared  and  hated. 

C.  Christianity  triumphant. 

D.  The  Hebrew  Race.     Teach  this  people  as  an  honest, 
frugal,  home-loving  people  of  high  spiritual  ideals.     They 
have  shown  to  the  world   ability  in  business,   commerce, 
finance  and  literature. 

VIII.  The  German  Tribes,  5  periods. 

Teach  these  as  wild,  virile,  restless  people  with  ideals  of 
war  and  of  personal  liberty  and  with  high  respect  for 
home  and  the  family.  Show  also  that  they  were  drunkards, 
gamblers  and  barbarians.  Read  the  first  chapter  of 
Taine's  History  of  English  Literature.  Teach  their  mi- 
grations and  the  destruction  of  Rome. 

IX.  The  Arabians,  3  periods. 

A.  Mohammed  and  the  spread  of  his  faith  to  the  Bat- 
tle of  Tours. 

B.  Culture  in  Spain.    Read  the  Alhambra. 

C.  Notation,  algebra  and  astronomy. 

X.  The  Dark  Era,  17  periods. 

A.  Charlemagne  and  the  Franks.  Use  the  material  in 
Eginhard's  Life. 


95 

B.  Feudalism.    Read  the  Idylls  of  the  King  and  Ivan- 
hoe.    Teach  ideals  of  chivalry. 

C.  The  Medieval  Church.     Its  splendid  cathedrals,  the 
friars  and  the  monks. 

D.  The  Crusades.     Teach  as  a  great  dramatic  event. 
Show  what  the  returning  knights  brought  to  Europe  from 
the  civilization  of  the  east. 

E.  The  Great  Awakening.     Center  this  work  entirely 
around  inventors,  discoverers  and  reformers,  men  like  Ba- 
con, Copernicus,  Galileo,  Luther,  Loyola. 

XI.     National  Heroes  and  Modern  Nations,  50  periods. 

In  each  case  the  genius 'of  each  people  should  be  studied 
through  the  ideals  of  national  heroes,  the  present  national 
position  and  character  should  be  determined  and  the  con- 
tribution to  civilization  recognized. 

A.  The  French.     (1)  Louis  XIV  and  the  Empire.    (2) 
The  rise  of  the  people  and  the  French  Revolution.     (3) 
The  cherished  ideals  of  "Liberty,   Equality  and  Frater- 
nity" which  solidified  the  nation  during  the  world  war. 
^1)  Napoleon,  the  Great.     (5)  The  France  of  Today:  Its 
ideals  and  part  in  the  war. 

B.  The   English.      (1)    Alfred,    the    Great.      (2)    The 
wresting  of  power  from  king  and  baron.     (3)  Ideals  of  the 
sacredness  of  chartered  rights  which  caused  a  nation  to 
rise  in  indignation  at  the  invasion  of  Belgium.     (4)   The 
British    Empire.      (5)    Modern   England:    Its   ideals   and 
aims  in  the  war.     (6)  The  Scotch  and  Irish  and  their  con- 
tribution. 

C.  The  Germans.     (1)   The  Germans  and  Frederick,  a 
genius  in  war,  unscrupulous,  a  patriarchal  monarch.     (2) 
The   Prussians   and   Bismarck,   the   empire   builder.      (3) 
The  Hohenzollerns  and  William,  the  war  lord.     (4)   The 
Germany  of  1914. 


96 

Note  from  the  above  the  persistent  ideals  of  systematic 
obedience,  of  war  glory,  and  of  success  at  any  price  which 
explain  Germany's  attitude  in  the  great  war. 

D.  Peter  the  Great  and  the  Russians.    Peter  represents 
his  people :  Young,  masterful,  simple  in  tastes,  avaricious 
in  desires.     Show  that  the  present  Russian  Revolution  is 
the  natural  conclusion  of  his  efforts. 

E.  Columbus  and  the  Spaniards.     The  colonizing  ideal 
and  an  impoverished  nation. 

F.  Cavour,  Garibaldi  and  the  Italians.     Study  Italian 
unity  and  the  present  conflict  for  "Italia  Irredompta." 

G.  Belgium,  the  country  that  gave  all. 

H.  The  Republics  of  Central  and  Smith  America. 
Study  their  racial  origin,  history  and  present  condition. 

1.     Canada.     Our  great  sister  of  the  North. 
J.     American  Ideals. 

XII.  The  Great  War,  10  periods. 

Study  its  origin  and  its  story.  Show  how  the  ideals  an^ 
aspirations  of  the  different  nations  led  each  to  enter  the 
war.  Show  that  this  is  a  world-old  conflict  for  the  free- 
dom of  nations  and  the  right  of  individual  thought  and 
personal  dignity.  It  is  the  same  contest  that  animated  the 
Greeks  in  the  Persian  "Wars,  the  French  in  their  Revolu- 
tion, the  English  in  gaining  their  charters,  the  Americans 
in  1776  and  the  Italians  in  assuming  nationality.  Teach 
that  this  conflict  must  be  fought  again  and  again  and  that 
" eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  liberty." 

XIII.  Peace,    5    periods.      Study    the    crushing    of    the 
power  of  Germany  and  her  allies,  the  terms  of  peace  and 
the  work  of  the  peace  conference. 


97 

XIV.     Character  of  Modern  Nations  and  Their  Contribu- 
tion to  Modern  Life,  5  periods. 

The  purpose  here  is  to  round  up  the  course  by  giving 
pupils  a  sympathy  for  other  peoples,  an  understanding  of 
their  ideals  and  an  appreciation  of  their  contribution  to 
the  world's  culture,  as:  (1)  The  French,  patriotism, 
thrift  and  taste;  (2)  The  Germans,  work,  system  and  obe- 
dience; (3)  The  English,  honesty,  endurance,  commerce; 
(4)  The  Italians,  music;  (5)  etc. 

Bibliography. 

Ancient  History:  Breasted,  Myers,  West,  "Woolfson. 
European  History :  Breasted,  Myers,  Harding,  Webster. 
A  detailed  bibliography  is  given  in  Institute  Circular 
No.  90. 

TXITED  STATES  CONSTITUTIONAL  HISTORY  VI. 

Aim. 

This  is  a  senior  course  in  history  required  by  law  of  the 
state  and  designed  to  show  the  origin  and  development 
of  our  ideals  of  representative  government  and  of  personal 
freedom,  and  to  introduce  the  pupils  to  the  responsibili- 
ties of  full  citizenship.  It  is  not  a  course  in  political  or 
military  history,  or  one  devoted  to  the  study  of  biography 
or  social  conditions.  The  schools  which  merely  enlarge 
the  eighth-grade  course  in  United  States  history  with  un- 
changed content  and  a  longer  and  harder  text  are  not 
meeting  the  legal  requirement.  The  course  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  Spanish  explorers,  with  Indian  tribes  and 
settlements,  with  presidential  administrations  or  with  mil- 
itary success  of  leaders.  It  is,  as  the  name  indicates,  a 
course  in  the  constitutional  history  of  the  United  States. 


98 


Standards. 


1.  A  study  of  national  problems  and  policies  with  their 
origin  and  significance   through   standard   textbooks  and 
collateral  reading. 

2.  An  interpretation  of  the  world  activity  for  the  year 
through  a  study  of  recent  current  history  in  its  making. 

3.  Active  interest  maintained  in  affairs  of  local  democ- 
racy through  a  first-hand  study  of  town,  state  and  na- 
tional government  and  administration. 


Suggestions. 

No.  of 

Exercises. 


No.  of 

Exercises. 


2  Teutonic     Be- 
ginnings 


II 

5  The    Great 
Charters 


III 

The  Develop- 
ment of  Par- 
liament 


IV 

5  Colonial  Gov- 
ernment 


1.  Organization 

2.  Map  of  Pupils 


(Town 
JCity 


3.  Henry's  Charter,  Magna  Charta, 
Confirmatio  Chartarum  2 

4.  Town} 

City  J  Hlstory  3 


5.  The    Model    Parliament,    Divine 
Right  of  Kings  vs.  Parliament        2 
Pet.  of  Rights,  Bill  of  Rights 

6.  Town}  _ 

City  \  Population  and  Industries  2 


7.  Land    Grants,    Spanish,    French, 
Dutch,  English  1 

8.  European    Government   of   Colo- 
nies, Southern,  N.  E.,  Middle          1 

9.  Town  Meeting.     Organization  of 
Town  Government  3 


99 

No.  of  No.  of 

Exercises.  Exercises. 


20  Achievement     10.  Colonies  Grow  Independent  2 

of  Indepen-       11.  Nullification  of  Charters,  Andros' 
dence  Tyranny  2 

12.  Growth   of   Towns,   Town   Char- 
ters,    Assemblies,     New     Hamp- 
shire's share  in  Colonial  Wars       5 
Discontent    with    Royal    Govern- 
ment 

13.  Organization   of   Forms    of    City 
Government  8 

14.  Struggle  for  Independence  2 

15.  Declaration  of  Independence  1 

VI 

20  Constitution      16.  Constitution  of  New  Hampshire, 
of  New  Hamp-        History,  Sources,  Convention,       15 
shire  and  of  Ratification,  Analysis 

United  States  .,  ,  ,      (Town          c 

17.  Services  Rendered  by  jcity 

18.  Articles  of  Confederation   r  1 

19.  The  northwest  ordinance  1 

20.  Constitution  of  United  States        7 

VII 

16  The  Critical      21.  Organization  of  the  Government    3 

Period  22.  Washington's  Farewell  Address     2 

23.  Foreign  Relations  2 

VIII 

9  The  Jefferson- 24.  Domestic  Policy  2 

ian  Princi-          25.  Expansion  2 

pies  26.  Struggle  for  Neutral  Rights 

27.  Town  Services,  Finance  3 

IX 

9  Rise  and  28.  Economic  Reorganization  2 

Growth  of        29.  City  Services,  Finance  1 

the  West  30.  Westward     Migration,     Internal 

Improvements  1 


100 


No.  of 
Exercises. 


No.  of 
Exercises. 

31.  Slavery   and   the   Missouri   Com- 
promise 2 

32.  County,    Map,    History,    Govern- 
ment 3 


5  The   Monroe     33.  Services    Eendered    by    County, 
Doctrine  Finance  3 

34.  Monroe    Doctrine    and    Panama 
Congress  2 


XI 

9  Federation 
Processes 


•     XII 

27  The  Union 
Saved 


35.  Reorganization  and  Jackson  2 

36.  Nullification,  Financial  Questions  2 

37.  State,  Map,  History,  Government, 
Population,   Industries,   Services     5 


38.  Anti-Slavery  Agitation  3 

39.  Texas  and  Mexico  3 

40.  Secession  5 

41.  Civil  War  5 

42.  Nation,  Map,  Government,  Offices 
Filled,    Services    Rendered,  Fi- 
nance 11 


XIII 

27  Constitutional  43.  Reconstruction  5 

Changes —         44.  Political  Problems  7 

Problems  of      45.  Economic  Problems  8 

Peace                  46.  Flexing  the  Constitution  7 

XIV 

22  United   States  47.  The  Spanish  War  2 

as  a  World       48.  Imperialism  1 

Power                49.  The  Panama  Canal  1 

50.  Treaties,  Hay-Pauncefoote,  etc.       2 

51.  History  of  the  World  War  16 

Each  teacher  should  have  also  Institute  Circular  "No.  91, 
which  gives  a  detailed  outline  of  the  course. 


101 
Bibliography. 

A.     For  the  Pupil. 

(1)  A  text  in  United  States  History,  selected  from  the 

following : 

Adams  &  Trent — History  of  the  United  States. 

Andrews — History  of  the  United  States. 

Charming — Students'  History  of  the  United  States. 

Fite — History  of  the  United  States. 

For  man — United  States  History. 

Hart — Essentials  in  American  History. 

McLaughlin — History  of  the  American  Nation. 

Muzzey — American  History. 

Thompson — History  of  the  United  States. 

West — History  of  the  American  People. 

(2)  A  text  in  Civil  Government,  selected  from  the  fol- 

lowing : 

Ashby — The  New  Civics. 

Beard — American  Government. 

Boynton — School  Civics  (Revised  Edition). 

Bryce — The  American  Commonwealth. 

Dunn — The  Community  and  the  Citizen. 

Fiske — Civil  Government  in  the  United  States   (Rev. 

Ed.). 

Flickinger — Civic  Government. 
Forman — Advanced  Civics.     . 
Guitteau — Government    and    Politics    in    the    United 

States. 

Hinsdale — The  American  Government  (Rev.  Ed.). 
Magruder — American  Government. 
Reed — Form  and  Function  of  American  Government! 
Schwinn  &  Stevenson — Civil  Government. 
Wilson— The  State. 

(3)  A  loose-leaf  notebook  8"  x  10%".     (Filler  should  in- 

clude a  quire  of  graph  paper.) 

(4)  Outline   maps   of   New    Hampshire,    New    England, 

United    States,    North   America,   Western   Hemi- 
sphere, the  World. 

(5)  The  Constitution  of  New  Hampshire. 

(6)  Subscription  to  a  national  wreekly  magazine. 


102 

B.  For  the  Teacher. 

(1)  The  above  and  Bourne — The  Teaching  of  History  and 

Civics. 

(2)  Baldwin — The  American  Judiciary. 

(3)  Channing  &  Hart — Guide  to  the  Study  of  American 

History. 

(4)  Gushing — History  Syllabus  for  Secondary  Schools. 

(5)  Farlie — Municipal  Administration. 

(6)  Goodnow — City  Government  in  the  United  States. 

(7)  Hart — Actual  Government. 

(8)  Hinsdale — How  to  Study  and  Teach  History. 

(9)  Historical  Sources  in  Schools. 

(10)  Howe— The  City. 

(11)  Martin — Hints  on  Teaching  History. 

(12)  Report  of  Committee  of  Seven  ("The  Study  of  His- 

tory in  Schools"). 

C.  For  the  School 

(1)  The  above   and   Colby — Selections  from   Sources  of 

English  History. 

(2)  Channing  &  Hart — American  History  Leaflets. 

(3)  Encyclopedia   (published  since  1910). 

(4)  Farrand — American  History  Review. 

(5)  Fiske — Beginnings  of  New  England. 

(6)  Fiske — Critical  Period  of  American  History. 

(7)  Fiske — Discovery  of  America. 

(8)  Fiske — Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies. 

(9)  Fiske — Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors. 

(10)  Harf— Formation    of    the    Union,    1750-1829     (Rev. 

Ed.). 

(11)  Hart — A  Source  Book  of  American  History. 

(12)  Hill— Liberty  Documents. 

(13)  Hosmer — Anglo-Saxon  Freedom. 

(14)  Kendall— Source  Book. 

(15)  Lodge — A  Short  History  of  the  English  Colonies  in 

America. 

(16)  Mace — Method  in  History  for  Teachers  and  Students. 

(17)  McDonald— Source  Book. 

(18)  Nicolay  &  Hay — Abraham  Lincoln. 

(19)  Parkan — Struggle  for  a  Continent. 

(20)  Steffens— The  Shame  of  the  Cities. 

(21)  Stubbs — Constitutional  History  of  England. 


103 

(22)  Thwaites— The  Colonies,  1492-1750  (Rev.  Ed.). 

(23)  Walker — Essentials  in  English  History. 

(24)  Wilson— Division  and  Reunion,  1829-1889. 

(25)  Nelson — History  of  the  World  War. 

(26)  Manual  of  the  New  Hampshire  General  Court. 

(27)  Report  of  the  Thirteenth  Census. 

(28)  Reports  of  Town,   City,   County  and  State  Officers 

(Current). 

(29)  American  History  Review  (Magazine). 

(30)  American  City  (Magazine). 

(31)  Congressional  Record  (Magazine). 

(32)  Current  History  (Magazine). 

(33)  Community  Leaflets  of  Department  of  the  Interior. 

(34)  Bouton — History  of  New  Hampshire,  or 
Belknap — History  of  New  Hampshire,  3  vols. 

(35)  The  New  Hampshire  Register  (Current). 

(36)  War  Information  Booklets. 

(37)  A  Daily  Newspaper. 

(38)  Wall  Maps  of  New  Hampshire,  New  England,  The 

United  States,  North  America,  The  World. 

(39)  A  Local  Town  History. 

(40)  Colby — Manual  of  the  Constitution  of  New  Hamp- 

shire. 

(41)  Revised  Statutes. 

(42)  Adams — An  Outline  Sketch  of  English  Constitutional 

History.  . 

ECONOMICS  AND   BUSINESS  PRACTICES   VI. 

Aim. 

The  general  purpose  of  the  study  of  economics  in  the 
senior  year  is  to  bring  the  pupils  into  actual  touch  with 
some  of  the  essential  realities  of  modern  social  and  indus- 
trial life.  It  does  not  contemplate  the  technical  problems 
of  political  economy  or  commercial  law.  It  does  propose 
to  offer  to  all  pupils  before  graduation  an  insight  and  par- 
ticipation in  the  ordinary  activities  of  business,  together 
with  a  consideration  of  some  matters  relating  to  personal 
welfare  and  success. 


104 

Standards. 

1.  A  competent  teacher.     This  course  may  not  he  as- 
signed to  any  teacher   who  has  spare  time  but  must   he 
taught  by  a  teacher  who  by  experience,  study  and  prepa- 
ration is  able  to  deal  with  the  actual  problems  of  citizen- 
ship  and  business.     If  no  such  teacher  is   available,  the 
course  should  not  be  given. 

2.  Satisfactory  books  for  reference  and  study.     Each 
pupil  should  have  good  textbooks  on  economics  and  one 
on  business  law  and  practice.     The  class  should  gather  and 
put  into  usable  form  its  collection  of  reference  books  and 
material.     In  the  use  of  the  textbook  on  economics,  little 
stress  should  be   placed   upon   generalities   and   technical 
terms.     From  the  textbook  in  law  should  be  omitted  the 
intricacies  of  commercial  law  and  all  studies  that  are  little 
likely  to  be  within  the  experiences  of  the  pupils. 

3.  Project  work.     In  each  division  of  the  course,  there 
is  to  be  practical  work  similar  to  that  given  in  the  follow- 
ing outline  under  references,  projects  and  excursions. 

Suggestions. 

GENERAL  OUTLINE. 

POSSESSIONS  (What  we  have)  : 

I.     Property  6  weeksl 

II.     Money  and  Credit  8  weeks/First  Semester 

III.     Taxation  4  weeks] 

BUSINESS  (What  we  do)  : 

IV.     Industry  8  weeksl 

V.     Insurance  4  weeks  ^Second  Semester 

VI.     Thrift  6  weeks] 

DETAILED  OUTLINE. 
PROPERTY. 

Use  the  school  lot  or  some  nearby  piece  of  land  as  a  basis 
for  real  estate.  Use  anything  available  for  personal  prop- 
erty but  USE  IT. 


105 
Real  Prop crti/. 

Ownership 

Title 
Deeds 
Mortgages 
Transfer 
Assignment 

"Registrar  of  Deeds" 
Wills 

Probate  Court 
Boundary  Lines 
Rights  and  Privileges 

Rent 

Leases 

Obligations  of  Landlord  and  Tenant 
Neighbors 

Rights  and  Obligations 
''Real  Estate  Agents" 

Personal  Property. 
Buying  and  Selling 

Bills  of  Sale 
Contracts 

Profit  and  Loss 

"Notary  Public" 

"  Justice  of  the  Peace" 

SUGGESTED. 

References. 

Specimen   Deeds,   Mortgages,   Wills,   Leases,    Contracts. 
Any  one  of  several  Home  Law  Books,  etc. 

Projects. 

1.  Issue  a  deed  to  the  Instructor  or  some  member  of 
class  of  a  certain  piece  of  land  previously  measured — school 
yard  or  other  piece. 

2.  Let  the  buyer  mortgage  it  for  a  part  of  its  value. 

3.  Hold  a  Probate  Court  to  consider  the  disposition  of 
a  will  recently  probated,  etc. 


106 

Excursions. 

1.  The  plot  of  land. 

2.  Lawyer's  office. 

3.  Office  of  "Registrar  of  Deeds"  if  accessible. 

4.  Probate  Court  if  accessible. 

5.  Office  of  real  estate  agent,  etc. 

MONEY  AND   CREDIT. 

Use  the  School  Savings  Bank  as  a  basis. 
Money. 

Coin  and  Coinage 
Bank  Notes 
Legal  Tender 

Credit 
Notes 
Checks 

Bonds  (Liberty) 
War  Savings  Stamps 

Banking. 

Renting  Money 
Loans 
Interest 
Bank  Discount 

National  Banks 
Clearing  House 
Federal  Reserve 

Savings  Banks 
Trust  Companies 

SUGGESTED. 

References. 

Types  of  Money,  Checks,  Liberty  Bonds,  etc. 

Project. 

1.     Operate  a  School  Bank  as  an  essential  feature  of  the 
commercial  department,  etc. 


107 


Excursions. 


1.  Visit  local  banks  and  observe  methods. 

2.  Talk  with  bankers  about  personal  qualities  necessary 
in  banking,  etc. 

TAXATION. 

Use  the  financial  operation  of  the  local  School  Depart- 
ment as  a  basis. 

Local  Taxation. 

Property  Tax 

Poll  Tax 

Issuing  Notes  and  Bonds 

State  and  Federal  Taxation. 

For  ordinary  purposes 
For  war  purposes 
Income  Tax 

Indirect  Taxation. 

Increased  rentals 
Higher  prices 

Expenditure  of  Public  Money. 

By  the  town  or  city 
•  By  the  state 
By  the  federal  government 

SUGGESTED. 

References. 

Local  Town  and  School  Reports,  Specimen  Bonds  and 
Notes,  Specimen  Tax  Bills,  Copy  Income  Tax  Question- 
naire, Reports  of  State  and  Federal  Financial  Officers,  etc. 

Projects. 

1.  Determine  and  draft  sources  of  revenue  to  run 
school  department.  Figure  percentage  from  each  source. 
Determine  school  tax  rate.  Compare  with  rate  for  other 
purposes. 


108 

2.  Form  class  into  a  City  Council  or  School  District. 
Issue  notes  or  bonds  or  both  for  constructing  new  school 
building.     Determine  annual  tax  necessary  for  this  pur- 
pose and  amount  each  pupil  would  pay,  each  holding  a 
different  property  valuation. 

3.  Determine  the  distribution  of  local  taxes  for  differ- 
ent departments  of  public  administration,  as  police,  health, 
etc.,  and  show  the  gain  to  the  individual  from  community 
services,  etc. 

Excursions. 

1.  City  Council  in  session. 

2.  Tax  Collector's  office,  etc. 

INDUSTRY. 

Use  Local  Industries  as  a  basis. 

The  Employer. 

Liabilities  and  obligations 

Corporations 
Monopolies 

Capital 
Profits 

The  Laborer 

Obligations 
Contracts 
Morale 

Organized  Labor 

Strikes,  Boycotts,  Sabotage 

Wages 

Business  Corporations. 
Freight  transportation 
Express  transportation 
Post  office  service 
Telegraph  and  telephone  service 
Gas  and  electric  company  service 


109 

Government  Control. 

Interstate  Commerce 
Transportation 

Socialism 

International  Trade. 
Consular  Service 
Exchange 
Relations  with  Europe,  South  America,  and  the  East 

Business  Ethics. 

SUGGESTED. 

References. 

Government  Reports,  Books  on  Commercial  Law,  Recent 
Addresses,  Documents  of  National  City  Bank,  New  York. 
Blanks  used  by  transportation  and  other  companies,  etc. 

Projects. 

1.  Form  class  into  a  Stock  Company.     Consider  liabili- 
ties of  employer  to  employed. 

2.  Organize  class  into  a  Labor  Union. 

3.  Study  transportation  with  local  common  utility  of- 
fices, considering  business  methods,  obligations  and  service 
rendered,  etc. 

Excursions. 

1.  Visit  local  industries  and  observe  business  methods. 

2.  Talk  with  business  men. 

3.  Visit  public  service  offices,  etc. 

INSURANCE. 

Use  Insurance  on  local  School  Property  as  a  basis. 

Fire  Insurance. 

The  Policy 

Method  of  settlement  in  case  of  loss 

Rates  in  different  sections  of  city 


110 


Life  Insurance. 


The  Policy 

Participating  policies 
Non-participating  policies 

Life  and  Term 

Premiums 

Dividends 

Methods  of  adjustment 

Requirements  to  obtain 
Beneficiary 

Annuities 

Legal  reserve  companies 

Assessment  companies 

SUGGESTED. 

References. 

Specimen  Policies,  Insurance  Literature,  Mortality  Ta- 
bles, etc. 

Projects. 

1.  Study  typical  policies. 

2.  Discuss  types  of  insurance  as  applied  to  different 
persons  in  different  stations  in  life,  etc. 

Excursions. 

1.     Visit  insurance  agent's  offices,  etc. 

THRIFT. 
Occupations. 

Income 

Expenditures 
Savings 

Investments 

Sound  and  unsound 
Laws  that  should  govern 
Poverty 

Advancement 

Qualities  necessary 


Ill 

Leisure. 

Self  improvement 
Reading  and  study 
Thinking 

Recreation 

Civic  responsibilities 

The  Family  Budget. 
Division  of  income 
Form  of  accounts 

SUGGESTED. 

References. 

Biographies  of  Successful  Men  and  Women.  Inspira- 
tional Books,  as  Conwell's  and  Harden 's.  Daily  personal 
and  financial  advertisements.  Magazine  financial  articles. 
Family  Expense  Account — Bookman:  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 
etc. 

Projects. 

1.  Find  current  yearly  income  of  main  occupations  in 
community. 

2.  Determine  preparation  required. 

3.  Determine  percentage  of  work  time  and  leisure  de- 
voted by  each  member  of  the  class.    Discuss  this. 

4.  Family  accounts  kept  for  a  year,  etc. 

Excursions. 

1.  Talk  with  successful  men  regarding  their  own  busi- 
ness or  profession. 

2.  Visit  local  establishments  and  estimate  opportunities 
for  young  men  and  women,  etc. 

SUGGESTED  JTALKS. 

By  Lawyers. 

Common  Laws  Every  Citizen  Should  Know. 
Rights  and  Obligations  of  Neighbors. 
How  to  Buy  and  Sell  Real  Estate,  etc.,  etc. 


112 

By  Bankers. 

Sound  and  Unsound  Investments. 
What  a  Trust  Company  Does. 
The  Federal  Reserve,  etc.,  etc. 

By  Business  Men. 

The  Kind  of  Help  Business  Men  Want. 

Government  Control  of  Railroads. 

Present  Business  Possibilities  in  South  America,  etc.,  etc. 

By  Insurance  Men. 

How  Fire  Loss  is  Adjusted. 

Why  One  Should  Carry  Life  Insurance. 

Different  Forms  of  Life  Insurance  Policies,  etc.,  etc. 

Bibliography. 

Elements  of  Economics — Bullock:  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

Elementary  Economics — Ely  and  Wicker :  The  Macmil- 
lan  Co. 

Elements  of  Business — Schock  and  Gross:  American 
Book  Co. 

Commercial  Law — Rowe :  R. 

Law  for  the  American  Farmer — Green:  The  Macmillan 
Co. 

Lessons  in  Community  and  National  Life — Judd  and 
Marshall. 

Laws  of  Business — Parsons. 


MASTERPIECES  OF  Music  AND  ART  V. 

This  is  a  year's  course  in  acquaintanceship  with  and  ap- 
preciation of  the  masterpieces  of  architecture,  painting, 
sculpture  and  musical  compositions. 

MUSIC. 
Aim. 

The  course  endeavors  to  cultivate  intelligent  listeners, 
who  may  for  that  reason  enjoy  a  vastly  greater  range  of 
compositions.  The  pupil  should  become  familiar  with  the 


113 

style  of  different  epochs  so  that  a  work  should  not  be  called 
classic  because,  as  a  young  lady  once  remarked,  it  was 
''rather  long,  rather  difficult  and  not  pretty."  The  pupil 
should  also  become  familiar  with  music  terms  generally, 
whether  used  as  titles  of  compositions  or  to  describe  a 
movement  and,  last  but  not  least,  she  should  learn  the 
proper  pronunciation  of  titles,  musical  expressions  and 
proper  names. 

Standards. 

The  study  of  fifty  musical  compositions  carried  at  least 
to  the  point  of  recognition. 

Suggestions. 

The  theory  of  music  should  be  studied,  but  at  least  sixty 
per  cent,  of  the  time  given  to  the  course  should  be  devoted 
to  musical  expression  and  to  listening  to  music,  with  notes 
and  comments,  historical,  biographical  or  of  interest  other- 
wise, accompanying  the  selections  played. 

It  is  suggested  that  each  pupil  keep  for  herself  a  record 
of  all  music  played  in  the  classroom,  together  with  the 
notes  and  comments,  and  pictures  appropriate  to  the  sub- 
ject which  may  be  obtained  in  a  variety  of  ways:  in  ad- 
vertisements of  music  records ;  in  music  and  other  maga- 
zines; in  the  daily  and  Sunday  papers;  in  the  "Perry 
Pictures."  Pupils  should  also  be  encouraged  to  read  the 
current  notes  and  comments  on  concerts,  recitals,  compos- 
ers and  performers  to  be  found  in  the  foremost  daily  pa- 
pers. 

As  more  and  more  schools  are  coming  to  depend  on 
music  records  for  this  work,  which  indeed  would  be  im- 
possible without  them,  a  list  of  suggested  records  is  here 
offered  for  convenience,  to  be  added  to  or  varied  by  the 
teacher  at  his  discretion.  These  records  are  given  the 
Victor  catalogue  numbers  but  the  same  records  and  other 
desirable  ones  may  be  obtained  from  the  Columbia  and 
other  phonographic  companies. 


114 

The  following  list  of  books  is  suggested  for  reading  and 
reference : 

What  is  Good  Music?  W.  J.  Henderson 

Purity  in  Music,  A.  F.  Thibaut 

The  Great  Tone-Poets  (Bach  to  Schumann),  F.  J.  Crowest 
A  Concise  History  of  Music,  H.  G.  B.  Hunt 

Music,  How  It  Came  to  Be  What  It  Is,        Hannah  Smith 
The  Story  of  the  Oratorio,  Anna  W.  Patterson 

The  Story  of  the  Violin,  Paul  Stoeving 

Hymns  and  Their  Writers,  D.  C.  Campbell 

The  Opera,  Past  and  Present,  W.  G.  Apthorp 

The  Pianoforte  and  Its  Music,  H.  E.  Krehbiel 

Music  Study  in  Germany,  Amy  Fay 

Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  Sir  George  Grove 


SUGGESTED  RECORDS. 

Folk  Songs  and  Dances. 

Russian — 17001     Kamarinskaia. 

63153     Vanka. 

Kolebaluia. 

Hungarian — 17003     Czardas. 

Irish— 64259     The  Harp  that  Once  Thro'  Tara's  Halls. 
Welsh— 74100    All  Through  the  Night. 
Scotch — 64210    Loch  Lomond. 
English— 17190     The  Lass  with  the  Delicate  Air. 

17086     Morris  Dance. 
American  Negro — 74246     Deep  River. 

Early  Church  Music. 

61108     Offertorio  e  Communione. 

(Gregorian  High  Mass,  Sistine  Choir.) 

Early  Counterpoint. 

35279     Sumer  is  ecumen  in. 

Oratorios. 

16980    Dead  March   (''Saul").  Handel 

85103     He  Shall  Feed  His  Flock  (" Messiah")     Handel 
31770     Hallelujah  Chorus   ("Messiah").  Handel 


115 


J.  S.  Bach,  H&ight  of  Contrapuntal  Period. 

81045  Ave  Maria. 

64132  Gavotte  in  E  Major. 

17184  Bourree  from  Suite  III. 

70047  Air  for  G  String. 

Classic  Period. 

64135  Minuet.. 

17087  Minuet. 

35576  Chorus  from  Fidelio. 

35268  I] 

35269  II  ^Leonora  Overture  No.  3. 
IIIJ 

88013     Who  is  Sylvia? 
64093     Serenade. 


Romantic  Period. 
31819 

31740 


Haydn 

Mozart 

Beethoven 

Beethoven 

Schubert 
Schubert 


Overture — Midsummer  Night's  Dream. 

Mendelssohn 
The  Two  Grenadiers.  Schumann 


Dance  Forms. 

17087  Minuet.  Mozart 

64132  Gavotte.  Bach 

35669  Bourree.  Bach 

17083  Tarantella.  Saint-Saens 

17174  Tarantella. 

64224  Mazurka.  Chopin 

17003  Czardas. 

Song  Form. 

35159  Spinning  Song.                                     Mendelssohn 

64093  Serenade.                                                        Schubert 

87502  Barcarolle   (" Tales  of  Hoffman").       Offenbach 

17181  Lullaby.                                                          Brahms 

Symphonies. 

35243) 

35244 (  Symphony  No.  3  ("Surprise").  Haydn 

35268) 

35269 (  Leonora  No.  3.  Beethoven 


116 


Overtures. 


31819     A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream.  Mendelssohn 

31739     Overture  1S12.  Tschaikowsky 

Magic  Flute.  Mozart 

35148     Bartered  Bride.  Smelana 

Descriptive  Compositions. 

64076     The  Bee.  Schubert 

64046     Le  Cygne.  Saint-Saens 

35464    L'apres  Midi.  Debussy 

Further  Compositions. 

35007  Peer  Gynt  Suite.  Grieg 

71042  Norwegian  Wedding  March.  Grieg 

-  35122  Hungarian   Rhapsody.  Liszt 

35275  Largo  ("The  New  World  Symphony").  Dvorak 

These  are  but  a  few  illustrative  compositions  selected 
from  the  great  amount  of  material  now  available,  and 
should  be  supplemented  by  selections  from  oratorios  and 
operas.  It  is  suggested  that  some  one  opera  be  chosen  for 
detailed  study.  Attention  is  also  called  to  Victor  Records 
35236  and  35237. 

Bibliography. 

What  We  Hear  in  Music,  Victor  Talking  Machine  Co. 
The  Lure  of  Music,  Columbia  Phonograph  Co. 
Story  of  Musical  Form,  Lucas:  Scribner  Co. 
Standard  History  of  Music,  Cooke. 

ART. 
Aim. 

The  purpose  of  this  course  is  to  develop  an  appreciation 
of  the  beautiful  in  the  works  of  man.  The  course  should 
develop  the  art  attitude  of  mind  towards  all  forms  of 
human  expression,  and  not  restrict  it  merely  to  the  lim- 
ited selections  of  art  subjects  treated  in  this  course.  It 
should  be  the  constant  aim  of  the  instructor  to  regard  the 
course  as  a  means  of  developing  an  essential  element  in 


117 

human  nature,  the  inherent  love  of  the  beautiful.  This 
course  does  not  presuppose  a  studio  training  or  even  an 
elementary  course  in  art  expression  for  either  the  in- 
structor or  the  pupil.  Such  training  would,  of  course,  be 
highly  useful.  This  course  does  assume,  however,  the 
existence  of  the  elemental  liking  for  beautiful  objects,  and 
where  this  elemental  liking  seems  to  be  lacking,  it  assumes 
that  it  can  in  a  measure  be  awakened.  In  both  cases  this 
course  assumes  that  a  pupil  can  be  led  to  experience  the 
beautiful  in  some  degree  in  the  presence  of  that  spiritual 
inheritance  of  the  race  expressed  in  architecture,  sculp- 
ture, and  painting.  % 

Standards. 

This  course  will  require  as  a  minimum  of  class  work, 
one-half  year  (18  weeks)  or  ninety  45-minute  periods. 

Each  pupil  should  keep  a  notebook.  Illustrations  may 
be  kept  in  the  notebook  or  mounted  on  separate  sheets  of 
paper  and  kept  in  a  portfolio.  Whatever  form  of  recording 
is  adopted  should  represent  the  pupil's  own  individual  re- 
sponse to  the  course.  This  record  should  contain  no  less 
than  one  hundred  mounted  pictures,  drawings  or  trac- 
ings, with  accompanying  explanatory  matter  neatly  and 
orderly  arranged.  The  record  should  contain  an  account 
of  the  topics  studied,  or  works  of  art  studied  in  class,  of 
visits  to  art  museums  and  other  places  of  art  interest,  of 
reports  on  outside  reading,  and  of  data  of  personal  in- 
terest to  the  pupil  suggested  by  the  art  course.  Memory 
sketches — even  though  crude — of  what  pupils  have  seen 
will  do  much  to  develop  the  capacity  of  appreciation. 

Suggestions. 

Almost  every  small  community  possesses  some  material 
for  the  beginnings  of  such  a  course  as  is  here  planned. 
Though  local  buildings  may  not  have  great  aesthetic 
value,  elements  suggesting  earlier  and  purer  forms  of 


118 

architecture  may  be  found  in  public  buildings  and  private 
residences  in  almost  every  village.  These  elements  should 
constitute  the  point  of  departure  for  the  course.  Inex- 
pensive pictures  of  buildings  which  cannot  be  visited  in 
nearby  or  remote  towns  can,  without  much  difficulty,  be  se- 
cured. So  far  as  possible  pupils  ought  to  be  encouraged 
to  make  sketches — even  very  crudely — and  to  take  photo- 
graphs of  selected  local  buildings.  There  is  on  the  market 
a  large  assortment  of  inexpensive  prints  covering  modern, 
medieval,  and  ancient  art.  Current  magazines  and  the 
supplements  of  newspapers  are  profusely  illustrated  and 
offer  a  great  variety  of  subjects.  Postcards  are  frequently 
worth  careful  study.  Excellent  effects  can  be  secured  by 
the  artistic  mounting  of  inexpensive  prints. 

The  method  of  this  course  should  secure  first-hand  re- 
actions from  the  pupil.  "Works  of  art,  either  in  the 
original  or  in  some  form  of  reproduction,  should  be  pre- 
sented first,  in  order  to  secure  for  the  pupil  a  direct  im- 
pression. Reading  about  art  is  not  sufficient  and  it  may 
lessen  the  fundamental  value  of  this  course  if  permitted 
for  each  pupil.  To  make  the  course  vital  and  to  secure  for 
it  an  organic  connection  with  the  pupil's  life,  this  course 
proposes  to  present,  first  of  all,  the  local  material — even  if 
it  is  meagre — and  gradually  to  introduce  more  remote 
material  both  in  place  and  in  time,  until  the  great  field  of 
art,  present  and  past,  is  surveyed. 

The  course  will  first  introduce  the  subject  of  American 
art,  because  it  is  nearer  to  us  than  any  other  art.  What 
we  find  in  it  of  outside  influence  will  naturally  lead  to  a 
study  of  those  art  influences.  This  search  cannot  be  car- 
ried out  in  detail,  but  it  can  be  made  to  show  the  pupil 
main  streams  of  European  art  influences  that  have  con- 
tributed to  American  art.  To  progress  from  effect  to  cause 
is  a  complicated  process,  but  the  instructor  should  not  have 
great  difficulty  in  keeping  the  main  currents  of  art  devel- 
opment through  the  ages. 

Having  made  the  contact  between  the  pupil   and   the 


119 

work  of  art,  and  having  kept  the  direction,  the  instructor 
should  show  the  relation  between  art  and  life.  Art  should 
not  be  regarded  as  something  extraneous  to  life  and  op- 
tional, but  rather  as  the  happiest  and  the  most  beautiful 
way  in  which  life  has  in  all  ages  expressed  itself.  The 
work  of  the  course  should  be  continually  correlated  with 
that  in  literature  and  history;  it  may  be  correlated,  too, 
with  music  and  other  arts. 

Use  literature  about  art  after  and  not  before  the  pupil 
has  seen  the  work  of  art  either  in  the  original  or  in  some 
form  of  reproduction.  Occasionally  this  method  may  be 
reversed,  but  the  value  of  the  course  will  increase  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  in  which  the  pupil  can  himself  appre- 
ciatively regard  works  of  art. 

This  course  is  planned  to  give  some  of  the  significant 
architecture,  sculpture  and  painting  of  the  present  and 
past.  The  instructor  will  select  from  the  following  outline 
as  much  as  he  can  use.  It  is  desirable — without  going  into 
minute  discussion — to  show  the  organic  unity  underlying 
all  forms  of  artistic  expression.  The  relations  between  the 
various  forms  of  art  selected  can  be  shown  in  broad  treat- 
ment. A  simple  presentation  of  fundamental  art  princi- 
ples, namely:  fitness,  harmony,  balance,  rhythm,  will  nat- 
urally introduce  the  course,  but  only  by  means  of  concrete 
examples. 

The  outline  which  follows  gives  essential  kinds  and 
periods  of  notable  art  expression.  The  proportion  of  time 
devoted  to  each  main  division  may  be  considered  elastic. 
No  main  topic  or  sub-topic  should  be  omitted.  Certain 
aspects  of  art  and  some  important  types  of  art  have  not 
been  included  in  the  outline  which  a  longer  course  might 
include.  Individual  members  of  the  class  may,  however, 
report  on  these  matters  as  they  arise  in  class  discussion. 
For  example,  it  may  be  of  interest  to  have  a  report  on 
Japanese  art  when  the  class  is  considering  the  work  of 
Whistler. 


120 

OUTLINE  OF  COURSES. 

/.     Nineteenth  Century  and  After  20  periods 

A.  American:    architecture — local    buildings,    schools, 

churches,  municipal  and  government  buildings, 
skyscrapers,  railway  terminals,  etc. 

sculpture — Works  by  George  G.  Barnard,  Herbert 
Adams,  Cyrus  E.  Dallin,  Gutzon  Borglum,  Lorado 
Taft,  Daniel  C.  French,  Frederick  W.  MacMon- 
nies,  Augustus  Saint-Gaudens,  etc. 

painting — Gari  Melchers,  Winslow  Homer,  Birge 
Harrison,  James  McNeill  Whistler,  John  H. 
Twachtman,  Childe  Hassam,  J.  Alden  Weir,  Ed- 
mund C.  Tarbell,  Elihu  Vedder,  John  LaFarge, 
Edwin  H.  Blashfield,  Edwin  A.  Abbey,  John  W. 
Alexander,  Wilton  Lockwood,  Alexander  Harri- 
son, John  S.  Sargent,  Thomas  Eakins,  Ralph  A. 
Blakelock,  Homer  D.  Martin,  Alexander  H. 
Wyant,  William  M.  Chase,  Thomas  W.  Dewing, 
George  Fuller,  Abbot  H.  Thayer,  George  deForest 
Brush,  George  Inness,  William  M.  Hunt,  Emman- 
uel Leutze,  J.  G.  Brown,  Chester  Harding, 
Thomas  Moran,  Albert  Bierstadt,  Asher  B.  Du- 
rand,  Thomas  Cole,  Washington  Allston,  John 
Trumbull,  Gilbert  Stuart. 

B.  French :   architecture — city  plan  of  Paris,   public 

buildings,  opera  house,  etc. 

sculpture — works  of  Rodin,  Fremiet,  Roty,  Barye, 
Carpeaux,  Rude. 

painting — B'astien-LePage,  Monet,  Dagnan-Bouveret, 
Rosa  Bonheur,  Cazin,  Bonnat,  Manet,  Lhermitte, 
Puvis  de  Chavannes,  Courbet,  Millet,  Corot, 
Meissonier,  Delaroche,  Carolus-Duran,  Delacroix, 
Ingres,  Gros,  David,  etc. 

C.  British:   architecture — Bank   of   England,    British 

Museum,  London  University,  St.  George's  Hall 
(Liverpool),  Houses  of  Parliament,  Nat.  History 
Museum  (South  Kensington),  etc. 

sculpture — works  of  Albert  Gilbert,  J.  Gascombe 
John,  Alfred  Drury,  E.  Qnslow  Ford,  Hamo 
Thornycroft,  Alfred  Stevens,  Chantrey. 

painting — Albert  Moore,  Alma  Tadema,  W.  Quiller 
Orchardson,  J.  E.  Millais,  Edward  Burne- Jones, 
G.  F.  Watts,  Edwin  Landseer,  J.  M.  W.  Tumor, 
etc. 


121 

//.    Eighteenth  Century  9  periods 

A.  American:      architecture — colonial     or      Georgian 

buildings. 

painting — C.  W.  Peale,  J.  Singleton  Copley,  Benja- 
min West,  John  Smybert. 

B.  British:  architecture — works  of  Adams  (brothers), 

Sir  William  Chambers,  James  Gibbs,  John  Van- 
brugh. 

sculpture — J.  Flaxman,  John  Bacon,  J.  Nollekens, 
Thomas  Banks. 

painting — Thomas  Lawrence,  Raeburn,  Hoppner, 
Allan  Ramsay,  Romney,  Gainsborough,  Rey- 
nolds, Hogarth. 

C.  French:   architecture — Neo-classic  style,   Place   de 

la    Concorde,    Works    of    Gabriel,    St.    Sulpice 

(Paris),  Pantheon. 
sculpture — Houdon,   Pajou,    Clodion,   Falconet,   Pi- 

galle,  Coustou  (brothers),  Bouchardon. 
painting — Madame    Vigee-Lebrun,    Hubert    Robert, 

Joseph     Vernet,     Fragonard,     Greuze,     Chardin, 

Nattier,  LaTour,  Boucher. 

D.  Italian:  sculpture — Canova. 

painting — Batoni,  Giovanni  Battista  Tiepolo,  etc. 

777.     Seventeenth  Century  9  periods 

A.  British:  architecture— The  Sir  Christopher  Wren, 

Inigo  Jones.       p 

B.  French:  architecture — The  Louvre,  Versailles,  va- 

rious chateaus. 

sculpture — Coysevox,  Puget,  Girardon. 
painting — Lancret,    Watteau,    Largilliere,    Rigaud, 

LeMoyne,    Jouvenet,    LeBrun,    Claude    Lorrain, 

Poussin,  LeSueur. 

C.  Italian:  architecture — St.  Peter's   (Rome). 
sculpture — Bernini. 

painting — Domenichino,  Carlo  Dolci,  Guido  Reni, 
Salvator  Rosa,  Carracci,  Caravaggio. 

D.  Spanish:      painting — Goya,      Murillo,     Velasquez, 

Zurbaran,  Ribera. 


122 

E.  Dutch:  painting— Bembrandt,  Paul  Potter,  Jacob 

Euisdael,  Hobbema,  Jan  Steen,  Vermeer,  Dieter 
de  Hooch,  Dou,  Franz  Hals. 

F.  Flemish:     painting — David    Teniers,    Antoon    van 

Dyck,  Jordaens,  Rubens. 

IV.  Renaissance  9  periods 

A.  Franco-Flemish:  sculpture — works  of  Goujon,  Pi- 

Ion,  Colombe. 

painting — Clouet,  Fouquet,  Ian  Gossaert,  Matsys, 
Froment,  Gerard  David,  Memling,  R.  Van  Der 
Weyden,  Ian  van  Eyck. 

B.  Italian:    architecture — Certoza     (Pavia),    Palazzo 

Vendramin  (Venice),  Ruccellai  Palace  (Flor- 
ence), Piccolomini  Palace  (Siena),  Palazzo  Stroz- 
zi  (Florence),  Palazzo  Pitti  (Florence),  Capella 
Pazzi  (Florence),  Bargello  (Florence),  Santo 
Maria  Novella  (Florence),  San  Giorgio  Maggiore 
(Venice),  Campanile  (Florence),  Leaning  Tower 
(Pisa). 

sculpture — works  of  the  Delia  Robbia,  Donatello, 
Brunilleschi,  Ghiberti,  the  Pisani,  Verrochio,  Cel- 
lini. 

painting — Michelangelo,  Raphael,  Titian,  Paul 
Veronese,  II  Tintoretto,  Correggio,  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  the  Bellini,  Mantegna, 
Pinturicehio,  Perugino,  Ghirlandajo,  Botticelli, 
Fra  Filippo  Lippi,  Masaccio,  Fra  Angelico,  Duc- 
cio,  Giotto. ' 

C.  German:  painting — Lucas  Cranach,  Hans  Holbein 

(younger),  Albert  Durer. 

V.  Gothic  6  periods 

A.  French:  architecture  (ecclesiastical) — S.  Etienne 
du  Mont  (Paris),  S.  Michel  (Dijon),  Reims, 
Amiens,  Beauvais,  LeMans,  Bourges,  Chartres, 
Paris  (Notre  Dame),  etc. 

architecture  (civic) — Jacques  Coeur's  House 
(Bourges),  Palais  de  Justice  (Rouen),  Hotel  de 
Clugny  (Paris),  Hotel  de  Ville  (Compiegne), 
ramparts  of  Carcassone. 

sculpture — "The  vintage  capital"  Cathedral 
(Reims),  figures  on  portals  Cathedral  (Char- 
tres) . 


123 

B.  English:    architecture — Hampton     Court,     King's 

College  Chapel  (Cambridge),  Henry  VII 's  Chapel 
(Westminster  Abbey),  York  Minster,  St.  Giles 
(Wrexham),  Canterbury  Cathedral,  Gloucester, 
Lichfield  Cathedral  (Choir),  Chapter  House 
(York  Minster),  Beverley  Minster  (Percy 
Shrine),  Carlisle  Cathedral  (Choir),  Wells  Cathe- 
dral, Lincoln  Cathedral,  Peterborough  Cathedral, 
Salisbury  Cathedral,  Westminster  Abbey,  Foun- 
tains Abbey  (Cloister). 

C.  Italian :  architecture — Pisa,  Milan,   Orvieto  cathe- 

drals. 

D.  German:  architecture — Strassburg,  Cologne  cathe- 

drals. 


VI.  Romanesque  5  periods 

A.  Italian:     architecture — St.       Ambrose       (Milan), 

Cathedral  at  Modena,  St.  Michael  (Pavia). 

B.  French:    architecture — Abbey    for    Men     (Caen), 

Church  of  St.  Giles,  Notre  Dame  (Paris). 

C.  English:     architecture — Cathedrals     at     Durham, 

Ely,  Canterbury. 

VII.  Early  Christian  3  periods 

A.  Italian:    architecture — St.    Marks    (Venice),    San 

Apollinare  in  Classe  (Eavenna),  San  Vitale  (Ra- 
venna) . 

B.  Byzantine:    architecture — St.    Sophia    (Constanti- 

nople) . 

VIII.  Roman  '?  periods 

Architecture — San  Paolo  fuori  le  mura  (Rome),  Ba- 
silica of  Constantine  (Rome),  Baths  of  Caracalla 
(Rome),  Tomb  of  Hadrian— Castle  of  St.  An- 
gelo  (Rome),  Colosseum  (Rome),  Arch  of  Con- 
stantine (Rome),  Arch  of  Titus  (Rome),  Pan- 
theon (Rome),  "Maison  Carree"  ( Ximes\ 
Aqueducts  of  the  Roman  Campagna,  Cloaca 
Maxima,  Gateway  at  Volterra. 


124 

Sculpture — Bronze  horses  (St.  Mark's — Venice), 
Equestrian  statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (Rome), 
Julius  Caesar  in  Toga,  Young  Augustus  (Vati- 
can), Antinous  (Vatican),  Augustus  of  Prima 
Porta  (Vatican),  Otricoli  Zeus  (Vatican),  Far- 
nese  Hercules  (Naples). 

Painting — Mosaics  in  churches  of  San  Paolo  fuori  le 
mura,  San  Pudenziana,  San  Apollinare  Nuovo 
(Ravenna),  frescoes  in  the  Catacombs  (Rome), 
Aldobrandini  Wedding  (Vatican),  The  Battle  of 
Issus — mosaic  (Pompeii). 

IX.     Greek  10  periods 

Architecture — Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates 
(Athens),  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus  (Asia  Mi- 
nor), Temple  of  Nike  Apteros  (Athens),  The 
Erectheum  (Athens),  The  Propylaea  (Athens), 
Parthenon  (Athens),  Temple  of  Theseus 
(Athens),  Temple  of  Athene  (Aegina),  Temple 
of  Poseidon  (Paestum,  Italy),  Lions'  Gate  (My- 
cenae). 

Sculpture — The  Laocoon  (Vatican).  Farnese  Bull 
(Naples),  Dying  Gaul  (Capitoline  Museum, 
Rome)  Apollo  Belvedere  (Vatican),  Aphrodite  of 
Melos — "Venus  de  Milo"  (Louvre),  Nike  of 
Samothrace  (Louvre),  Attic  tomb  reliefs — Dexi- 
leos,  Hegeso,  etc.,  Alexander  sarcophagus  (Con- 
stantinople), Demeter  from  Cnidus  (British 
Museum),  Apoxyomenos  after  Lysippus  (Vati- 
can), Silenus  and  Infant  Dionysus  (Louvre), 
Marble  Faun  after  Praxiteles  (Capitoline  Mu- 
seum, Rome),  Artemis  of  Versailles  (Louvre), 
Hermes  and  Infant  Dionysus  by  Praxiteles  (Mu- 
seum, Olympia),  Nike  by  Paeonios,  Varvakeion 
Athene  (Athens),  Balustrade  of  Temple  of  Nike 
Apteros,  Caryatids  of  the  Erectheum,  Inner  Frieze 
of  Parthenon,  Metopes  of  Parthenon,  Pediment 
figures  from  the  Parthenon  (British  Museum, 
London),  Doryphorus  after  Polycleitus  (Na- 
ples), Discobolus  after  Myron  (Vatican),  Pedi- 
ment groups  from  Temple  of  Athene,  Aegina 
(Berlin). 


125 

Painting — Vases  with  painted  designs  in  black  on  red 
and  yellow  grounds,  frescoes  from  Tiryns,  geo- 
metric designs,  etc. 

X.     Egyptian  and  Primitive  2  periods 

A.  Egyptian:  architecture — buildings  at  Luxor,  Kar- 

nak;  pyramids  at  Ghizeh. 

sculpture — Colossi  of  Rameses  II  (Luxor,  etc.),  The 
Scribe  (Louvre),  Statue  of  King  Chefren 
(Cairo),  Sheik-el-beled  (Cairo),  Great  Sphinx. 

painting — wall  paintings  from  palaces,  tombs. 

B.  Primitive:   remains  in  Mexico,   Central  America; 

Stone  Henge  (England),  menhirs  (France),  cave 
markings  (Dordogne). 

Bibliography. 

The  following  bibliography  is  made  up  of  books  that  are 
most  likely  to  be  found  in  small  libraries  containing  art 
books.  Each  section  of  the  preceding  outline  is  given  a 
number  of  references  bearing  directly  upon  its  topics. 
Both  sets  of  references  are  necessarily  brief  because  there 
is  a  vast  literature  on  the  course. 


GENERAL  WORKS. 

A.  On  the  history  of  art. 

DeForest  and   Caffin's  A  short  history  of  art    (The 
Prang  Co.). 

Lethaby's    Architecture — Home    Univ.    Library     (H. 
Holt  &  Co.). 

Lubke's  History  of  art,  edited  by  R.  Sturgis  (Dodd, 
Mead  &  Co.).    A  standard  work  in  two  volumes. 

Reinach's  Apollo   (Scribner's  Sons).     The  best  short 
work;  very  compact  and  fully  illustrated. 

B.  On  specific  fields  of  art. 

Armstrong's  Art  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (Scrib- 
ner's). 


126 

Caffin's  The  story  of  American  painting  (Stokes).   An 
excellent  single  volume  fully  illustrated. 

Caffin's  American  masters  of  sculpture    (Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co.). 

Hourticq's  Art  in  France  (Scribner's).    The  best  sin- 
gle volume  in  English. 

Isham's  The  history  of  American  painting   (Macmil- 
lan).     The  standard  work. 

Tarbell's  History  of  Greek  art  (Macmillan). 

C.  On  the  appreciation  of  art. 

Brook's  Architecture  and  the  allied  arts  (Bobbs-Mer- 
rill). 

Caffin's  Art  for  life's  sake  (The  Prang  Co.).    A  sug- 
gestive work  which  a  teacher  should  read. 

Emery's  How  to  enjoy  pictures  (The  Prang  Co.). 

Sturgis's  'The  appreciation  of  architecture    (Double- 
day,  Page  &  Co.). 

Sturgis's  The  appreciation  of  pictures  (Baker  &  Tay- 
lor Co.). 

Sturgis's  The  appreciation  of  sculpture   (Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co.). 

D.  On  the  technique  and  theory  of  art. 

Batch  elder's  The  principles  of  design  (Inland  Printer 
Co). 

Dow's  Composition  (Baker  &  Taylor  Co.). 

Poore's  Pictorial  composition  and  the  critical  judg- 
ment of  pictures  (Putnam's  Sons). 

Ross's  A  theory  of-  pure  design    (Houghton,  Mifflin 
Co.). 

SECTION  REFERENCES. 

i 

Inglis,    Alexander;    Principles    of    secondary    education, 
(Houghton,  Mifflin  Co.).    Ch.  XVIII— especially  Sect. 

281. 


127 

Sleight,  W.  G. ;  Educational  values  and  methods  (Oxford 
Press).  Ch.  IX — a  most  important  educational  work 
for  the  teacher. 

Judd,  Charles  H. ;  Psychology  of  high  school  subjects 
(Ginn  &  Co.).  Pp.  353-364,  367-369;  see  also  pp. 
184f.,  201  on  the  appreciation  of  literature. 

Sargent,  Walter;  High  school  education  (Johnston) 
(Scribner's  Sons).  Ch.  XVI;  see  bibliography  p.  508. 

Sargent,  Walter;  articles  in  The  School  Review  (Chicago), 
vol.  XXIV.  Pp.  107ff.  Art  courses  in  high  schools, 
pp.  409ff.  Course  of  study  of  art  in  the  high  school. 

2.     Reproduction  in  picture  form. 

The  University   Prints,   Newton,   Mass,    (catalogue   5 
cents). 
One-cent  size  (8  x  5%  inches)  half  tones. 

The    Perry    Pictures,    Maiden,    Mass,     (catalogue    10 
cents) . 

Half -cent  size  (3  x  31/2  inches). 
One-cent  size  (5%  x  8  inches). 
Two-cent  size  (7x9)  inches). 
Seven-cent  size  (10  x  12  inches). 

The  Thompson  Publishing  Co.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  (cata- 
logue 15  cents). 

One-cent  size  (4x5)  blue-prints. 
Ten-cent  size  (8  x  10)  blue-prints,  and  black  and 

white  prints  (4x5). 
Twenty-five-cent  size    (8  x  10)    black  and  white 

prints. 

Elson  Art  Publication  Co.,  2a  Park  St.,  Boston,  Mass, 
(catalogue  5  cents). 
Carbon  photogravures  ranging  in  price,  5  cents 

to  $8.00  each. 

Carbon   photographs   ranging   in   price,   $4.00  to 
$40.00  each. 

Curtis  &  Cameron,  Boston,  Mass,  (catalogue  35  cents). 
Copley  Prints;  high  grade  reproductions;  rich  in 
works  of  American  artists. 


128 

The  Medici  Society  (American  Branch  Inc.),  12  Har- 
court  St.,  Boston,  Mass,   (catalogue  25  cents). 
Color  reproductions  of  very  high  grade;  rich  in 
old  masters. 

Post  Cards,  Detroit  Publishing  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Reproductions  in  casts. 

P.  P.  Caproni  &  Bros.,  1914-1920  Washington  St., 
Boston,  Mass. 

3.  Year-Book  of  the  Council  of  Supervisors  of  the  Manual 

Arts,  1907. 

Article  by  Walter  Sargent,  pp.  43f.  The  relation  of 
public  schools  to  museums  of  fine  arts.  See  ac- 
companying illustrations  by  H.  T.  Bailey. 

4.  Outlines  for  art  study. 

General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  Mrs.  C.  E. 
Perkins  (Chairman),  327  Washington  St.,  Grand 
Rapids,  Mich,  (outlines  25  cents). 

American  Federation  of  Arts,  Leila  Mechlin  (Secre- 
tary), Washington,  D.  C.  (outline  study,  courses 
in  American  art;  price  10  cents). 

American  Art  Annual  (published  by  Amer.  Federa- 
tion of  Arts),  filled  with  information  on  art  ac- 
tivities in  the  United  States. 

GREEK  AND  ROMAN  LITERATURE  VI. 
Aim. 

It  has  long  been  felt  that  the  Greek  and  Roman  classics 
should  not  remain  merely  for  the  select  few  who  have  the 
courage  and  patience  in  this  age  of  expedition  to  read 
them  in  the  original  only  in  intensive  and  limited  form 
in  the  classroom;  but  that  it  might  be  possible  to  pursue 
in  school  a  Greek  and  Latin  course  in  English.  This  is  now 
possible  by  reason  of  the  large  number  of  literary  transla- 
tions in  both  prose  and  verse.  English  Literature,  par- 
ticularly in  poetry,  is  so  saturated  with  the  elements  that 


129 

made  the  classics  great,  that  a  knowledge  of  the  latter, 
presenting  great  literature,  great  art,  great  history,  great 
civilization,  is  a  matter  of  tantalizing  concern  today.  Thus 
is  offered  a  course  in  Greek  and  Roman  Literature  for 
non-classical  students  and,  in  particular,  for  those  whose 
school  work  has  specially  fitted  them  to  make  the  home  a 
place  of  refinement  and  culture,  where  there  should  be 
pabulum  for  the  mind  as  well  as  for  the  body. 

Standards. 

This  course  may  be  taught  only  by  a  teacher  who  is  in- 
terested in  literature  and  familiar  with  the  classics.  In 
many  school  staffs,  it  would  be  assigned  to  some  teacher  of 
Latin  or  of  English.  The  course  should  not  be  given,  if  no 
teacher  is  competent  for  the  work. 

This  is  not  a  new  course,  and  agreed  standards  of  ac- 
complishment may  be  reached  only  from  the  experience  of 
the  schoolroom.  It  is,  however,  to  be  a  course  in  extensive 
reading  and  at  least  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
covered  in  the  following  bibliography  should  be  the  work 
of  the  class.  Appended  to  the  bibliography  of  both  lists 
of  authors  are  books  for  collateral  reading.  These,  in  the 
main,  are  modern  works  in  English  based  on  classic  themes 
or  subjects.  There  will  be  ambitious  students  wishing  to 
read  extensively  from  these  lists,  so  it  is  advised  that  a 
minimum  of  five  titles  be  selected  for  reading  from  the 
combined  collateral  groups. 

Suggestions. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  by  even  a  casual  survey  o'f  the 
bibliography  below  that  this  course  calls  for  extensive  and 
rapid  reading.  No  time  must  be  wasted  in  discussion 
of  the  minutiae  of  the  selections.  A  general  or  skeleton  pic- 
ture of  a  whole  story,  book,  poem  or  play  should  be  ob- 
tained by  the  student  at  one  sitting,  and  this  can  be  supple- 
mented by  detail,  resulting  from  a  second  or  third  reading, 


130 

for  such  points  as  style,  diction,  treatment  of  subject, 
mythology,  appreciation,  memorizing  of  famous  passages  or 
parts,  study  of  civilization,  classification,  prosody,  literary 
value,  cultural  value,  literary  influence,  etc. 

The  teacher  will  need  to  display  a  generous  amount  of  en- 
thusiasm as  she  guides  the  class  along  through  this  course. 
The  teacher,  as  usual,  will  make  the  course  a  success  or  a 
disappointment,  depending  on  the  interest  she  arouses  and 
maintains.  Famous  passages  should  be  read  in  part  aloud  in 
class,  both  student  and  teacher  engaging.  This  can  best 
be  done  in  the  drama,  of  course.  The  greatness  of  some 
passages  is  first  made  clear  to  the  young  learner  only 
through  the  teacher's  oral  reading. 

The  teacher  should  constantly  keep  in  view  the  need  of 
developing  in  the  class,  by  the  books  assigned,  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  tremendous  significance  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  civilizations,  the  greatness  of  these  in  .various  de- 
partments, such  as  government,  literature  and  art,  and 
their  legacies  to  the  modern  world. 

There  are  only  a  few  annotated  editions  available,  so  a 
double  duty  devolves  upon  the  teacher  to  .emphasize  or 
develop  the  salient  points  of  the  text,  and  make  clear  the 
mythological  references  and  pronunciation  of  proper 
names.  Indeed,  constant  use  should  be  made  of,  and  ref- 
erence to,  some  good  compendium  of  mythology,  for  the 
purposes  of  this  course  the  best  being  Gayley's  "Classic 
Myths  in  English  Literature"  (Ginn).  Its  stories  of  the 
common  pagan  deities  of  classic  literature  should  be  com- 
mon knowledge. 

It  will  be  left  to  the  teacher's  good  judgment  to  make 
selections  suitable  in  character  and  extent  where  "Selec- 
tions" are  specified  in  the  "Bibliography." 

The  suggestion  is  made  that  a  minimum  of  formal 
examinations  be  held  in  this  course;  the  progress  of  the 
student  will  best  be  tested  by  his  daily  class  work,  where 
he  should  be  held  strictly  accountable. 


131 

GREEK  AUTHORS. 


Bibliography. 


Homer,  Iliad,  Bryant's  translation  (verse),  Bks.  I, 
VI,  XXII,  XXIV;  (Riverside  Literature  Series), 

10  periods. 
Or 

Homer,  Iliad,  Pope's  translation  (verse),  Bks.  I, 
VI,  XXII,  XXIV;  (Riverside  Literature  Series), 

10  periods. 

Homer,     Odyssey,    Palmer's    translation     (prose)  ; 

(Riverside  Literature  Series),  10  periods. 

Homer,    Ulysses    among    the    Pha?acians,    Bryant's 

translation;   (Riverside  Literature  Series),     1  period. 

Xenophon,  Memorabilia,  or  Anabasis;  Everyman 
Edition,  10  periods. 

Thucydides,  Peloponnesian  War,  Bk.  II,  "The 
Plague;"  Everyman  Edition,  2  periods. 

Herodotus,  Vol.  I,  Selections,  50  pages;  Everyman 
Edition,  2  periods. 

Plato,  Apology,  Crito  and  Phaedo;  Golden  Treas- 
ury Series,  8  periods. 

Plutarch,  Lives  of  Cicero  and  Pericles,  Everyman 
Edition;  or  Lives  of  Caesar,  Brutus  and  Antony; 
Pocket  Classics,  5  periods. 

Aeschylus,  Agamemnon,  and  Persians,  or  Eumen- 
ides  (verse)  ;  Everyman  Edition,  15  periods. 

Euripides,  Alcestis  and  Medea  (verse)  ;  Everyman 
Edition,  20  periods. 

Sophocles,  Antigone  and  Oedipus  Tyrannus  (verse), 
Everyman  Edition,  or  same  (prose)  in  Jebb's 
translation,  20  periods. 

Aristophanes,  Acharnians,  or  Birds ;  Everyman  Edi- 
tion, 3  periods. 

As  a  substitute  for  Herodotus  and  Thucydides  above, 
readings    from    "Greek    Poets    in    English    Verse"    by 


132 

various  translators).  Houghton,  Mifflin  Company,  may  be 
used  for  selections  in  authors  not  included  in  the  above 
list.) 

Collateral  Reading. 

Ulysses,  Stephen  Phillips. 

Ulysses,  Tennyson. 

The  Fire-Bringer,  Wm.  Vaughn  Moody. 

The  Ancient  Classic  Drama,  Richard  Moulton. 

The  Cyclops,  Shelley. 

On  the  Crown,  Demosthenes. 

Odes,  Pindar  (Myers'  translation). 

Fables,  Aesop. 

Artemis  Prologizes,  Browning. 

Ode  to  Psyche,  Keats. 

Chapman's  Homer,  Keats. 

Pheidippides,  Browning. 

Prometheus  Unbound,  Shelley. 

LATIN  AUTHORS. 

Terence,  Phormio,  Morgan's  translation;  Harvard 
University  Press,  5  periods. 

And 

Plautus,  Menaechmi,  Nixon 's  translation ;  Putnam 's, 

3  periods. 
Or 

Terence,  Phormio,  and  Plautus,  Captives;  both  in 
blank  verse  in  "The  Chief  European  Dramatists" 
by  Brander  Matthews,  8  periods. 

Livy,  History  of  Rome,  Bks.  I,  II,  Selections,  75 
pages ;  Everyman  Edition,  3  periods. 

Caesar,  Commentaries,  Bks.  I,  III,  IV,  V;  Every- 
man Edition,  5  periods. 

Vergil.  Aeneid,  Bks.  I-VI,  and  selections  from  Bks. 
VI-XII,  Conington  (prose)  ;  Pocket  Classics, 

20  periods. 
Or 

Vergil,  Aeneid,  Bks.  I-VI,  and  selections  from  Bks. 
VI-XII,  Conington  (verse)  ;  Longman's,  20  periods. 


133 

Cicero,  On  Friendship ;  On  Old  Age ;  Selected  Let- 
ters ;  On  Duties ;  Everyman  Edition ;  Archias, 
Hinds  and  Noble,  10  periods. 

Tacitus,  Germania;  Agricola;  Everyman  Edition, 

3  periods. 

Horace,     Odes    and     Epodes     (prose),    Selections; 
Loeb  's  Classical  Library.  10  periods. 

Catullus  1 

Ovid  (Selections  (verse)   from  Dole's  volume  by 

Juvenal  \ various  translators;  Astor  Edition, 

Lucretius  I  10  periods. 

Martial 

M.  Aurelius,  Meditations  (Selections,  50  pages)  ; 
Everyman  Edition,  3  periods. 

Collateral  Reading. 

Cicero,  Orations  vs.  Catiline,  Bohn  Standard  Library. 

Caesar,  Civil  War. 

Pliny's  Letters. 

Hippomenes  and  Atalanta,  Landor. 

Lays  of  Ancient  Rome,  Macauley. 

Atalanta 's  Race,  Morris. 

Ovid,  Bk.  I,  Dryden. 

Vergil's  Eclogues,  Dryden. 

Horace,  Satires. 

Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature,  Gayley. 

Song  of  Proserpine,  Shelley. 

On  a  Grecian  Urn,  Keats. 

The  Love  of  Alcestis,  Morris. 

Pan  in  Wall  Street,  Stedman. 

Lotus  Eaters,  Tennyson. 

Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature,  Gayley. 


134 

CHAPTER    IV. 
PHYSICAL  SCIENCES. 
ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE  I  AND  II. 
Aim. 

Elementary  science,  as  here  conceived,  has  a  place  of  its 
own  between  the  nature  study  in  the  lower  grades  and  the 
formal  science  of  the  later  years  in  the  secondary  school. 

The  nature  study  period  is,  in  the  main,  one  of  sensory 
experience  of  natural  objects  and  processes,  involving  also 
simple  control  of  the  phenomena  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 

The  stage  of  elementary  science  is  one  in  which  the  pupil 
enters  upon  an  elementary  investigation  of  the  processes  of 
the  world  of  nature  about  him  as  revealed  in  the  manifold 
application  of  discovery  and  invention  which  have  become 
the  common  environment  of  all  who  live  under  the  condi- 
tions of  modern  civilization.  This  stage  may  be  thought 
of  as  the  popular  science  stage.  It  belongs  particularly 
to  the  period  of  early  adolescence,  in  which  the  individual 
is  in  a  period  of  unusual  hospitality  to  new  ideas  of  a 
higher  order  than  has  previously  been  the  case,  but  when 
he  is  still  reluctant  and  probably  unable  to  comprehend 
the  abstractions  involved  in  scientific  generalizations. 

Standards. 

1.  The  program  calls  for  two  half -courses  in  which  are 
interpreted  such  phenomena  of  nature  as  are  within  the 
experience  of  children. 

2.  The  course  cannot  be  satisfactorily  taught  if  a  single 
textbook  on  the  subject  is  put  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils 
for  a  series  of  assignments  and  recitations. 

3.  The  course  should  include  the  several  branches  of 
physical  science  as  physics,  chemistry,  astronomy,  meteor- 
ology and  biology. 


135 

* 

Suggestions, 

The  outline  given  on  pages  168  to  198  of  the  elementary 
program  should  be  the  basis  of  the  work,  but  the  room 
should  be  supplied  with  textbooks  in  elementary  science 
and  on  the  several  sciences,  with  the  magazines  of  science 
and  with  the  simple  apparatus  needed. 

Bibliography. 

Chapter  XVI,  Elementary  Science,  Program  'of  Studies 
for  the  Elementary  Schools  of  New  Hampshire. 

Textbooks  of  the  type  of  the  Hodgdon  Elementary  Sci- 
ence, published  by  Hines,  Hayden  and  Eldredge. 

PHYSICS  iv. 
Aim. 

During  the  last  decade  probably  no  subject  in  the  cur- 
riculum has  enlarged  and  changed  its  viewpoint  more  than 
science  and,  especially,  physics.  Therefore,  it  seems  nec- 
essary to  state  briefly  these  important  changes  and  to  in- 
dicate clearly  the  present  accepted  principles  of  science 
as  far  as  they  apply  to  the  recitation  and  the  laboratory 
experiment. 

First,  the  formal  or  didactic  method  of  instruction  is 
abolished.  This  means  that  recitations  merely  to  show  the 
teacher  how  much  of  a  textbook  the  pupil  has  learned,  or 
to  give  the  teacher  opportunity  merely  to  explain  what -is 
not  understood,  or  to  aid  in  solving  a  large  number  of 
unfamiliar  textbook  problems,  or  to  describe  numerous 
unfamiliar  applications  of  principles  are  not  considered 
sufficiently  valuable  to  justify  the  attempt  to  teach  science. 
The  recitation  to  be  worth  while  must  be  so  ordered  that  it 
will  impart  to  the  pupils  some  insight  into  the  meaning  and 
value  of  science,  infect  them  with  the  true  scientific  spirit, 
and  train  them  to  methods  of  thinking  and  investigation 
common  to  all  sciences. 


136 

* 

Secondly,  it  means  that  far  too  many  experiments  are 
performed  merely  "to  illustrate  this  principle,"  "to  ver- 
ify that  law,"  "to  determine  the  value  of  that  constant," 
or  "to  measure  something"  for  the  mere  sake  of  acquiring 
technical  skill  by  formal  practice.  The  deadening  effect 
of  merely  "going  through"  a  set  of  formal  experiments 
unrelated  to  any  work  in  the  classroom  or  to  any  vital 
interest  of  the  pupil  is  appalling.  This  has  been  the  cause 
of  failure  with  the  use  of  many  manuals  such  as  the  Har- 
vard Experiments,  the  so-called  "National  Physics 
Course"  and  others  of  a  similar  purely  formal  character. 
All  such  laboratory  work,  aimed  as  it  is,  consciously  or 
unconsciously  merely  to  impart  information  or  formal  disci- 
pline, tends  to  inhibit  thought  and  investigation  rather 
than  to  incite  it  and  can  no  longer  be  tolerated. 

The  true  spirit  of  science  grows  out  of  the  desire  to  know 
truth  that  may  have  a  useful  outcome  and  apply  it  to  get 
results  that  are  felt  to  be  worth  while  and  hence  this  spirit 
can  be  caught  by  children  only  when  they  investigate,  learn 
and  apply  in  order  to  get  results  that  appeal  to  them  per- 
sonally as  worthy  of  their  efforts. 

The  scientific  method  is  essentially  a  method  of  solving 
problems  that  present  some  appeal  to  the  mind.  Therefore, 
the  true  way  to  induct  beginners  i)ito  its  use  is  to  confront 
them  with  such  problems  and  guide  them  in  using  scientific 
methods  in  reaching  their  solution.  These  problems 
through  which  one  expects  to  teach  the  facts,  ideas,  laics, 
concepts  and  principles  of  science  must  be  found  among 
those  that  lie  near  the  interests  o.-nd  experiences  of  the  pu- 
pils and  can  be  led  up  to  in  such  an  interesting  way  that 
they  will  appropriate  them  as  their  own. 

Standards. 

1.  The  unit  in  physics  consists  of  at  least  one  hundred 
and  eighty  periods  of  forty  minutes  each  (equal  to  120 
hours)  of  assigned  work.  Two  periods  of  laboratory  work 
count  as  one  of  assigned  work. 


137 

2.  The   work  consists  of  three   closely   related   parts; 
namely,  class  work,  lecture-demonstration  work  and  labo- 
ratory work. 

3.  It  is  very  essential  that  double  periods  be  arranged 
for  laboratory  work. 

4.  The  class  work  includes  the  study  of  at  least  one 
standard  text. 

5.  In  the  laboratory  the  pupil  shall  perform  at  least 
forty  individual  experiments  or  thirty  projects   (see  defi- 
nition of  experiment  and  project  under  Chemistry),  and 
shall  keep  a  careful  notebook  record  of  them.     At  least 
twenty  of  these  will  involve  numerical  work  and  the  de- 
termination of  such  quantitative  relations  as  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  whole  numbers  and  should   not  differ  widely 
from  the  list  of  starred  topics  in  the  syllabus. 

Suggestions. 

1.  Syllabus  of  Topics.  *1 — Weight,  center  of  gravity. 
*2 — Density.  *3 — Parallelogram  of  forces.  *4 — Atmos- 
phere pressure;  barometer.  *5 — Boyle's  law.  *6 — Pres- 
sure due  to  gravity  of  liquids  with  a  free  surface ;  varying 
depth,  density  and  shape  of  vessel.  *7 — Buoyancy; 
Archimedes'  principle.  *8 — Pascal's  law;  hydraulic  press. 
9 — Work  as  force  times  distance  and  its  measurement  in 
foot-pounds  and  gram-centimeters.  10 — Energy  measured 
by  work.  *11 — Laws  of  machines;  work  obtained  not 
greater  than  work  put  in,  efficiency.  *12 — Inclined  plane. 
*13 — Wheel  and  axle,  pulleys.  *14 — Measurement  of  mo- 
ments by  the  product  of  force  times  arm;  levers.  15 — 
Thermometers;  Fahrenheit  and  Centigrade  scales.  16 — 
Heat  quantity  and  its  measurement  in  gram-calories.  *17 — 
Specific  heat.  *18 — Evaporation ;  heat  of  vaporization  of 
water.  *19 — Dew  point ;  clouds  and  rains.  *20 — Fusion 
and  solidification;  heat  of  fusion.  21 — Heat  transference 
by  conduction  and  connection.  22 — Heat  transference  by 
radiation.  23 — Qualitative  description  of  the  transfer  of 


138 

energy  by  waves.  24 — Wave  length  and  period  of  waves. 
25 — Sound  originates  at  a  vibrating  body  and  is  transmit- 
ted by  waves  in  the  air.  *26 — Pitch  and  period  of  sound. 
*27 — Relation  between  the  wave  length  of  a  tone  and  the 
length  of  a  string,  or  organ  pipe.  *28 — Resonance.  29 — 
Beats.  30 — Rectilinear  propagation  of  light;  pin-hole 
camera.  *31 — Reflection  and  its  laws;  images  in  plane 
mirror.  *32 — Refraction  and  its  use  in  lenses ;  the  eye,  the 
camera.  *33 — Prisms  and  dispersion.  34 — Velocity  of 
light.  35 — Magnetic  attractions  and  repulsions.  *36 — 
Field  of  force  about  a  magnet.  37 — The  earth  as  a  mag- 
net; compass.  38 — Electricity  by  friction.  39 — Con- 
ductors and  insulators.  *40 — Simple  voltaic  cell.  *41 — Elec- 
trolysis; definition  of  ampere.  *42 — Heating  effects;  re- 
sistance, definition  of  the  ohm.  *43 — Ohm's  law; 
definition  of  the  volt.  *44 — Magnetic  field  about  a  current ; 
electromagnets.  *45 — Electromagnetic  induction.  *46 — 
Simple  alternating  current  dynamo  of  one  loop.  *47 — 
Electromagnetic  induction  by  breaking  the  circuit ;  pri- 
mary and  secondary.  *48 — Conservation  of  energy. 

Note.  This  syllabus  is  not  intended  to  include  all  the 
materials  for  the  year's  work.  It  is  purposely  made  short 
so  that  each  teacher  may  be  free  to  supplement  it  in  a  way 
that  fits  his  individual  environment.  It  does,  however,  in- 
clude all  the  topics  which  have  by  common  consent  been 
agreed  upon  as  essential  to  a  first  course  in  physics. 

2.  Form  of  Notes.  The  notes  made  by  the  pupil  on  his 
experiment  should  contain  (a)  a  full  and  clear  but  con- 
cise statement  of  the  problem  that  is  to  be  solved  or  the 
question  that  is  to  be  answered  by  the  experiment;  (b)  a 
brief  description  of  the  apparatus  and  materials  used; 
(c)  an  explanation  of  the  method  of  procedure;  (d)  a 
clearly  tabulated  statement  of  all  numerical  data  and  re- 
sults; (e)  all  calculations  that  were  used  in  obtaining  the 
results;  (f)  the  conclusions  that  were  reached;  (g)  a  brief 


139 

discussion  of  such  sources  of  error  as  are  profitable  for  the 
pupil  to  consider;  (h)  the  solution  of  some  numerical  prob- 
lem based  on  the  experiment  performed. 

Note.  Much  time  is  often  wasted  in  the  useless  embel- 
lishment of  notebooks.  Pupils  should  never  be  allowed  to 
copy  drawings  from  books.  All  drawings  should  be  made 
from  the  objects  themselves  that  are  to  be  represented ; 
and  they  should  show  clearly  the  particular  features  that 
are  significant  in  the  problem.  Occasionally  a  negative 
may  be  made  of  apparatus  difficult  to  draw  and  the  pupil 
be  encouraged  to  make  a  blue  print  for  his  notebook.  All 
notes  that  belong  directly  to  the  laboratory  should  be  made 
in  the  laboratory  at  the  time  when  the  work  is  done  and  the 
sheets  on  which  they  are  made  should  not  be  taken  from 
the  laboratory  until  they  have  been  inspected,  checked  and 
released  by  the  teacher. 

3.  Equipment.     It  must  be  understood  that  science  is 
essentially    laboratory    work    and    every    school    must    be 
equipped  with  a  laboratory  and  apparatus  suitable  for  per- 
forming the  experiments  arising  in  the  study  of  the  sylla- 
bus.   A  minimum  equipment  list  may  be  obtained  from  the 
state  department. 

The  school  laboratory  should  also  contain  cases  and  dis- 
play racks  for  charts,  maps,  pictures  and  lantern  slides. 
Also  bookcases  for  science  library,  catalogues,  illustrations, 
scientific  papers  and  magazines.  Models  and  sets  of  appar- 
atus prepared  for  special  experiments.  A  good  projection 
lantern  or  porte-lumiere. 

4.  Making  of  Apparatus.    The  making  of  apparatus  by 
the  pupils  should  be  encouraged  and  the  best  pieces  used 
in  class  work.    Among  those  most  useful  and  easily  made 
are  the  following: 

Plumb  bobs  and  pendulums,  inclined  planes,  levers, 
weights  for  levers,  model  of  a  traveling  crane,  equilibrium 
of  liquid  tubes,  model  water  wheels,  model  turbine,  air 


140 

thermometer,  metal  thermometer,  lift  and  force  pumps, 
demonstration  barometer  tubes,  Boyle's  law  tubes,  convec- 
tion apparatus,  model  of  hot-water  heating  plant,  distilla- 
tion apparatus,  suspended  coils  and  ampere  frame,  helices 
mounted  on  boards,  sounders  and  keys,  resistance  coils,  pri- 
mary and  secondary  coil,  Wheatstone  bridges,  solutions, 
Leyden  jars,  discharger,  electrophorous,  voltaic  cells,  elec- 
trolysis apparatus,  electroscopes,  sonometers,  photometers, 
optical  benches,  mirrors,  rectangular  blocks,  camera,  hy- 
draulic press,  dynamo  and  countless  others,  especially  in 
electricity. 

5.  The  Recitation.  There  should  always  be  definitely  in 
mind: 

1.  The  General  Topic  (e.  g.  Heat).  2.  The  Sub-topic 
(e.  g.  Distribution  of  heat  by  convection).  3.  The  Lesson 
unit  (e.  g.  Uses  and  control  of  heat  in  the  house).  4.  The 
Lesson  Problem  (e.  g.  How  to  start  a  fire  without  getting 
smoke  into  the  house). 

At  the  assignment  of  the  lesson,  the  teacher  will  find  out 
how  much  the  class  already  knows  about  the  subject,  will 
ask  questions  that  suggest  problems,  will  request  apparatus 
to  be  examined,  will  call  for  the  collection  of  illustrated 
material  obtained  from  local  sources  or  catalogues,  will  for- 
bid the  study  of  any  text  or  premature  theories,  will  set 
everyone  asking  questions  at  home  and  on  the  street  to 
discover  facts,  will  require  that  orderly  notes  be  made  of 
all  facts  learned  or  investigated,  will  call  for  personal  ex- 
periences gained  through  any  of  the  senses  that  may  bear 
on  the  subject,  and  will  require  each  pupil  to  write  and 
hand  in  on  the  morrow  a  neatly  written  summary  in  good 
English  of  all  that  has  been  learned,  together  with  ques- 
tions upon  topics  not  clearly  understood. 

During  the  lesson  conference,  the  subject  matter  is  or- 
ganized by  the  pupils  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher 
and  the  lesson  problem  clearly  outlined.  Here  the  aim 
is  to  get  at  the  foundation  of  things  and  to  complete  the 


141 

chain  of  efficient  causes  link  by  link  as  far  as  the  pupils 
are  able  to  go  by  their  own  observation  and  reasoning. 

Next  different  hypotheses  to  explain  the  facts  observed 
are  advanced  and  tested  by  simple  experiments.  Here 
comes  in  the  true  function  of  the  laboratory  experiment. 

Then  comes  the  conclusion,  tJie  generalization  and  the 
application.  The  conclusion  will  usually  consist  of  a  writ- 
ten series  of  statements  of  facts  and  phenomena  observed, 
discovered,  investigated  or  verified.  The  final  generaliza- 
tion is  a  concise  written  statement  in  good  English  of  the 
essential  and  characteristic  principles  involved  in  the  prob- 
lem investigated.  Each  pupil  should  prepare  one  and  read 
to  the  class.  The  best  may  occasionally  be  decided  by  vote. 
Under  application,  associated  or  related  phenomena  are 
studied  and  a  far-reaching  general  principle  established 
which  is  more  likely  to  be  remembered  and  recalled  when 
wanted  for  the  solution  of  similar  problems  than  it  would 
be  if  only  perfunctorily  memorized. 

Lastly  the  topical  review  outline  is  placed  on  the  board, 
each  pupil  supplying  one  or  more  topics  and  giving  details 
without  reference  to  books  or  notes. 

6.  Laboratory  Experiments.  No  laboratory  experiment 
should  ever  be  performed  unless  it  is  to  find  out  at  first 
hand,  by  special  appropriate  observation  and  experiments, 
certain  essential  facts  of  observation  which  are  needed  in 
the  methodical  investigation  of  a  certain  scientific  problem 
and  which  can  not  be  found  out  as  conveniently  or  effec- 
tively in  any  other  way.  It  makes  all  the  difference  in  the 
world  whether  the  pupil  observes,  experiments,  measures, 
examines  apparatus  or  machine  and  specimens,  tabulates 
measurements  and  solves  problems  merely  "to  do  stunts/' 
"to  perform  experiments,"  "verify  laws,"  or  even  "to  get 
a  concrete  basis  for  appreciating  the  principles  set  forth 
in  the  text,"  or  whether  he  is  experimenting  to  find  an 
answer  to  some  problem  in  which  he  is  tremendously  inter- 
ested. Thousands  of  notebooks  of  the  former  class  clutter 


142 

the  closets  of  science  laboratories,  as  the  pupils,  after  a 
year's  hard  labor,  do  not  care  enough  about  them  to  take 
them  home. 

It  should  continually  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  finding, 
for  example,  of  the  specific  gravity  of  any  substance,  the 
determining  of  the  coefficient  of  friction  of  expansion,  the 
verifying  of  Ohm's  law  or  any  other  similar  experiment 
has  absolutely  no  pedagogical  value  unless  it  is  done  to 
answer  some  vital  question  of  worth-while  importance  in 
which  the  pupil  is  intensely  interested. 

If  no  large  commercial,  industrial  or  civic  problem  is 
possible,  the  pupil  is  always  interested  in  determining  the 
efficiency  of  the  particular  piece  of  apparatus  which  he  is 
using.  For  example,  a  pupil  feels  no  great  mental  stimulus 
in  merely  verifying  the  law  of  the  inclined  plane  or  pulley, 
but  he  may  become  highly  interested  to  discover  how  far 
this  particular  inclined  plane  or  pulley  complies  with  the 
theoretical  law,  to  discover  and  compute  its  loss,  that  is,  to 
decide  upon  its  efficiency  and  to  compare  the  efficiency  of 
the  two  machines  in  doing  the  same  work. 

Under  this  sort  of  teaching,  the  laboratory  experiment 
instead  of  being  abstracted,  formal  and  meaningless  to  the 
pupil  becomes  a  necessary  step  in  the  answering  a  real  live 
human  problem  that  the  pupil  has  some  actual  reason  for 
determining,  that  is,  it  becomes  a  project.  Many  such  lab- 
oratory experiments  can  be  found  in  the  problems  aroused 
in  observing  the  household  or  industrial  machines  which 
are  in  common  use,  such  as  fireless  cookers,  electric  flat- 
irons,  sewing  machines,  electric  and  mechanical  vacuum 
cleaners,  lathes,  drills,  electric  fans,  scissors,  can  openers, 
fruit  presses,  thermometers,  stoves,  furnaces,  gas,  water 
and  electric  meters,  ice  cream  freezers,  thermos  bottles, 
household  and  school  plumbing,  heating  and  ventilation, 
refrigeration,  stills,  automobiles,  gas  engines,  annunciators, 
electric  gas  lighters,  bells,  fuses,  lights,  automatic  sprink- 
lers, electroplating,  electrolysis,  civic  water  supply  and 
pressure,  municipal  projects  and  hundreds  of  other  big, 


143 

vital,  live  subjects.  The  practical  pedagogical  test  for  all 
experiments  is  this :  Does  it  interest  the  pupil  in  some  prin- 
ciple of  physics  and  increase  his  ability  to  apply  it  in  other 
cases? 

7.  List  of  Laboratory  Experiments.    For  the  above  rea- 
sons no  formal  set  of  laboratory  experiments  will  be  issued, 
but  forty  of  the  type  outline  will  be  required.     Packard's 
Laboratory  Manual,   Every  Day  Physics,   Twiss'  Labora- 
tory Exercises  in  Physics  and  the  Experiments  adopted  by 
the  Northwestern  Association  of  Science  Teachers  are  good 
examples  of  live,   practical  experiments  along  the  latest 
scientific  lines. 

8.  Aids  to  Interest  in  PJnjsics.     The  Weston  Electrical 
Instrument  Company  of  Newark,  New  Jersey,  publish  sev- 
eral monographs  of  great  value  to  teachers.    These  may  be 
obtained  free.     The  National  Joint  Committee  on  the  Im- 
provement of  Physics  Teaching  has  numerous  blue  prints, 
description  of  new  apparatus  and  devices  which  may  be 
obtained    from   the    Chairman,    Professor   J.   A.   Randall, 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  New  York.     The  large  science 
apparatus  houses   issue   catalogues  which  are   instructive 
and  helpful  and  should  be  on  file  in  every  science  library. 
Hopkins'    Experimental    Science,    published    by   Munn   & 
Company,  editors  of  the  Scientific  American,  is  an  almost 
indispensable  book  to  every  school  as  are  also  numerous 
other  publications  of  the  same  company.     Biographies  or 
well-selected  biographical  sketches  of  the  lives  of  the  great 
scientists  should  be  easily  available.     Among  the  most . in- 
teresting are   Galileo,   Copernicus,   Newton,  Watt,   Boyle, 
Galvani,  Volta,  Franklin  Faraday,  Tyndall,  Rowland,  Hill, 
Edison,   Marconi,    and   the   Wright   Brothers.      Selections 
from    the    works    of   Davy,    Faraday,    Tyndall,    Fleming, 
Lodge,  Dewar,  Michelson  and  others  are  not  only  absorb- 
ingly interesting  from  the  standpoint  of  science,  but,  also 
are  choice  models  of  English   exposition.     The  Scientific 


144 

American  and  the  Scientific  American  Supplement  are  ex- 
tremely valuable,  as  are  also  The  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
Popular  Mechanics  and  the  Electrical  Experimenter. 

A  live  science  club  adds  much  to  the  interest  of  the 
school  and  affords  an  excellent  opportunity  to  make  new 
apparatus,  do  commercial  testing  and  special  scientific  in- 
vestigation. 

Bibliography. 

For  professional  reading  by  the  teacher,  nothing  is  bet- 
ter than  " Science  Teaching"  by  G.  R.  Twiss,  published  in 
1917  by  the  Macmillan  Company.  "The  Teachings  of 
Physics"  by  C.  R.  Mann,  published  by  the  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, is  also  excellent,  as  is  t  i  The  Symposium  on  the  Pur- 
pose and  Organization  of  Physics  Teaching  in  the  Second- 
ary Schools,"  published  by  the  editors  of  School  Science 
and  Mathematics,  2059  E.  72d  Place,  Chicago.  Government 
Bulletin,  No.  47,  entitled,  "Teaching  Material  in  Govern- 
ment Publications,"  is  excellent  and  can  be  obtained  free 
from  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 

CHEMISTRY  V. 

Aim. 

See  Physics  IV. 
Standards. 

1.  The  study  of  a  standard  text  with  at  least  150  pages 
of  supplementary  reading. 

2.  Not  fewer  than  60  experiments  worked  out  in  the 
laboratory  by  each  pupil  and  properly  recorded  in  a  suit- 
able notebook,  or, 

3.  Not  fewer  than  30  projects,  or, 

4.  Any  combination  of  2  and  3  the  numerical  value  of 
which  equals  60.     Each  project  may  be  equivalent  to  two 
experiments. 


145 

5.  Not  fewer  than  200  problems  in  chemical  arithmetic, 
including  computations  accompanying  the  laboratory 
work.  It  is  desirable  that  problems  be  recorded  in  a  note- 
book and  be  held  ready  for  inspection  at  any  time. 

Suggestions. 

1.  Definitions. 

Experiment.  A  procedure  according  to  an  outline  the 
aim  of  which  is  not  directly  related  to  the  environment  of 
the  pupil  and  usually  has  as  a  goal  an  illustration  of  some 
scientific  principle  without  any  particular  application. 

Project.  An  extended  experiment  motivated.  Every 
experiment  may  be  made  a  project  by  extension  and  appli- 
cation. For  illustration,  the  chemistry  of  soap  making, 
preparation  of  alcohol  by  fermentation,  preparation  of 
ether  and  others,  with  slight  modification,  are  Avell  adapted 
for  project  work.  A  list  of  recommended  projects  is  given 
in  Circular  No.  92. 

2.  Notebooks.    See  under  Physics  IV. 

3.  Required  Equipment.     Every  laboratory  should  be 
provided  with  water,  with  gas,  if  possible,  and,  if  not,  a 
gasoline  blast  lamp  and  sufficient  alcohol  lamps ;  a  table  for 
every  two  pupils  and  at  least  one  good,  well-ventilated  hood. 
Tables  should  contain  lockers  and  racks  for  bottles  and  ap- 
paratus when  in  use. 

Tables  can  be  built  by  manual  training  class  or  by  any 
carpenter,  at  low  cost,  suitable  for  all  the  work  necessary  in 
physics  or  chemistry.  Iron  sinks,  arranged  tandem,  with 
tables  on  each  side,  closets  beneath,  and  shelves  on  racks 
above,  admirably  answer  the  purpose.  In  this  way  one  sink 
may  serve  for  four  pupils. 

There  must  be  a  sufficient  quantity  of  chemicals  and  ap- 
paratus in  the  laboratory  to  meet  the  demands  of  the 
selected  work. 

10 


146 

4.  Recommendations.    It  is  recommended  that  through- 
out the  course  especial  attention  be  paid  to  the  common 
illustrations  of  chemical  phenomena  and  their  industrial, 
physiological    and    hygienic    applications;    that    visits    be 
made  to  chemical  works,  dye  shops,  gas  plants  and  the  like 
where  possible;  that  periodicals  devoted  to  the  subject  be 
regularly  taken  for  class  use;  that  special  reference  books 
and  various  texts,  manuals,  catalogues,  etc.,  be  kept  con- 
stantly and  easily  accessible  to  the  pupils;  and  that  the 
laboratory  be  made  attractive  and  workable. 

Many  communities  furnish  opportunities  for  observing 
well  developed  chemical  operations,  such  as  special  water- 
filtering  plants,  manufacture  of  paper,  tanning  of  hides, 
dyeing  of  cloth.  Whenever  possible,  a  survey  of  these  oper- 
ations should  be  carried  out  by  certain  pupils  interested 
in  some  particular  line  of  work.  Such  a  survey  might  re- 
quire the  equivalent  time  of  a  week's  work  in  the  labora- 
tory. A  record  of  this  investigation  should  be  comprehen- 
sively written  and  presented  for  approval  immediately 
after  the  work  has  been  completed. 

5.  Laboratory  Work.     The  chief  aim  in  a  preparatory 
course  in  chemistry  is  to  furnish  first-hand  information 
about  well-known  materials,  their  manufacture,  properties 
and  use.    Therefore,  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  gain  a 
comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  the  science,  nor 
in  any  way  to  encroach  upon  the  province  of  collegiate  in- 
struction, but  rather  to  appeal  to  the  experiment  instead 
of  the  text  for  answers  to  questions  and  to  stimulate  the 
reasoning  powers  of  the  pupil  by  constant   questioning, 
supervision  and  correction.     This  will  aid  in  training  the 
pupil  to  observe  accurately  and  draw  correct  conclusions 
from  his  observations. 

6.  Lecture  Table  Demonstration.    The  preliminary  lec- 
ture work  may  well  be  confined  to  those  experiments  which 


147 

are  to  be  done  in  the  laboratory,  giving  a  general  descrip- 
tion of  the  method  to  be  used,  the  object  to  be  attained 
and  the  precautions  which  must  be  observed  to  insure 
safety  and  obtain  good  results.  The  later  lectures  and 
demonstrations  can  be  used  appropriately  in  amplifying 
the  work  done  in  the  laboratory  by  parallel  but  different 
experiments ;  in  explaining  more  in  detail  the  principles  in- 
volved after  the  class  has  thought  out  the  main  points  in 
regard  to  them;  and  in  doing  any  of  the  experiments  for 
which  there  is  not  sufficient  time  in  the  laboratory.  Sub- 
ject matter  for  demonstration  may  be  found  in  almost  any 
advanced  chemistry,  but  care  should  always  be  taken  to 
select  that  which  illustrates  and  teaches  rather  than  that 
which  only  amuses  and  delights. 

LIST  OF  CHEMISTRY  EXPERIMENTS. 

No.  EXPERIMENT. 

1.  Physical  properties  of  iodine. 
Physical  properties  .of  sugar. 

Note  action  on  heating  and  degree  of  solubility  in 
water. 

2.  Effect  on  (a)  iron  and  (b)  magnesium  when  heated 

in  air. 

3.  Preparation  and  properties  of  oxygen.    (Two  meth- 

ods.) 
Study  of  by-products  in  both  cases. 

4.  Weight  of  a  litre  of  oxygen.     (Standard  pressure  and 

temperature. ) 

5.  Determination  of  the  per  cent,  of  oxygen  in  the  at- 

mosphere. 

6.  Preparation  and  properties  of  hydrogen  gas.     (Two 

methods.) 
Study  of  by-products  in  both  cases. 

7.  Electrolysis  of  water. 

8.  General  study  of  acids,  bases,  and  salts. 

9.  Study  of  the  common  indicators. 

10.  Neutralization  by  titration  method. 

11.  Hydrolysis.     Solutions  of  salts  that  are  not  neutral. 

Water  as  a  real  chemical  compound. 


148 

12.  *Study  of  solutions,  suspensions,  precipitates. 

13.  Relation  between  temperature   and  solubility.     Note 

also  rate  of  solubility.     Some  salts  are  very  solu- 
ble but  dissolve  slowly. 

14.  Relation  of  the  properties  of  a  substance  to  its  water 

of     crystallization.       What     commercial     signifi- 
cance ? 

15.  Efflorescence. 

16.  Deliquesence. 

17.  Preparation  and  properties  of  chlorin  gas. 
Chlorin  water. 

18.  Preparation  and  properties  of  hydrochloric  acid  gas 

and  liquid. 

19.  Preparation  and  study  of  two  chlorides.     Test  for  a 

chloride. 

20.  Preparation  of  two  bromides.    Test  for  a  bromide. 

21.  Preparation  of  two  iodides.     Test  for  an  iodide. 

22.  Comparative  study  of  the  chemism  of  chlorin,  bro- 

min,  and  iodin  by  displacement. 

23.  Preparation  and  properties  of  hydrofluoric  acid. 
Study  of  the  physical  properties  of  sulphur. 

24.  Note  properties  on  heating  in  a  test  tube. 

What   is   the   usual   relation   between   viscosity   and 
temperature  ? 

25.  Preparation    of    a   crystalline    and    an    amorphorous 

form  of  sulphur. 

26.  Preparation  and  properties  of  hydrogen  sulphide. 

27.  Direct  formation  of  two  metallic  sulphides. 

28.  Preparation  of  a  sulphite  and  a  corresponding  sul- 

phate. 

29.  Preparation  of  two  nitrates.      (Two  methods.) 

30.  Test  for  a  nitrate.    Test  for  a  nitrite. 

31.  Preparation  and  study  of  an  oxide  of  nitrogen  pro- 

duced by  decomposing  ammonium  nitrate. 

32.  Preparation  and  properties  of  nitric  oxide.    Behavior 

with  oxygen.     (Air.) 

33.  Preparations  and  properties  of  nitric  acid. 

34.  Preparation  and  properties  of  ammonia  gas  and  so- 

lution. 


*  Many  pupils  fail  to  recognize,  with  certainty,  precipitates  and 
true  solutions.  Correct  methods  should  be  insisted  on  and  the  stu- 
dent led  to  understand  the  importance  of  this  recognition. 


149 

35.  Reaction    between    an    ammonium    compound    and    a 

base   (a)   in  a  slightly  moist,    (b)   complete  solu- 
tion. 

36.  Per  cent,  of  nitrogen  in  the  air. 

37.  Study  of  carbon.     Physical  and  chemical  properties. 

Modifications. 

38.  Detection    of   carbon    dioxide    in   the    air.      Physical 

properties  of  the  gas. 

39.  Solubility   of   carbonates   in   the   presence   of  carbon 

dioxide. 

40.  Effect  of  heat  on  suspension  of  carbonates  in  partial 

solution. 

41.  Study  of  at  least  two  types  of  fire  extinguishers. 

42.  Study  of  baking  powders. 

43.  Preparation     of     carbon     dioxide.       Acid-carbonate 

method. 

44.  Preparation  and  properties  of  carbon  monoxide. 

45.  Study  of  temporary  and  permanent  hard  waters. 

46.  Action  of  aluminum  salts  on  water  containing  solu- 

ble salts  of  lime. 

47.  Equivalent  of  silver  to  hydrogen. 

48.  Equivalent  of  aluminum. 

49.  Study  of  the  general  behavior  of  electrolytes  and  non- 

electrolytes   in   solution.      Supplemented   by   lec- 
ture experiments  and  class  discussions. 

50.  lonization  and  migration  as  shown  by  the  study  of 

some  electro-plating  process. 

51.  Flame   tests   for   sodium,   potassium,   strontium,    cal- 

cium, and  barium  compounds. 

52.  Action  of  metals  on  certain  salt  solutions.     Displace- 

ment. 

53.  Identification  of  a  few  metals  by  borax  bead  test. 

54.  Identification  of  metals  by  use  of  blow  pipe.     Oxida- 

tion and  reduction.- 

55.  Oxidize   iron   to  the   higher   state   and   test   for   the 

presence  of  "OUS"  and  "1C." 

56.  Reduce  a  solution  of  iron  with  hydrogen  gas  to  a  no- 

ticeable degree. 

57.  Changing  potassium   chromate  to   potassium  bichro- 

mate and  back  again.    Oxidation  and  reduction 
in  solutions. 

58.  Preparation  of  chromic  anhydride,  chromic  acid,  and 

potassium  chromate. 


150 

59.  Chromium  as  an  acid-forming  and  a  base-forming  ele- 

ment. 

60.  Qualitative  separation  of  lead,  silver,  and  mercury. 

61.  Qualitative   separation   of  the   metals   of   any   other 

group. 

62.  Study  of  the  properties  of  phosphorus. 

63.  Tests  for  ortho  and  meta  phosphoric  acids. 

64.  Preparation  of  two  double  salts. 

65.  Preparation  of  an  acid  salt. 

66.  Preparation  of  sodium  carbonate. 

67.  Study  of  the  preparation  and  composition   of  blue 

print  paper. 

68.  Composition  of  organic  compounds. 

69.  Study  of  a  few  properties  of  cane  sugar.     (12  car- 

bon.) 

70.  Study  of  a  few  properties  of  glucose.     (6  carbon.) 

71.  Relation  between  starch,  dextrin  and  sugar. 

72.  Detection  of  starch  by  iodin. 

73.  Study  of  the  relation  between  sugar  and  alcohol. 

74.  Study  of  the  relation  between  alcohol  and  an  organic 

acid. 

75.  Test  for  an  acetate. 

76.  Study  of  the  composition  of  photographic  materials. 
Chemical  action  in  exposure  and  development. 

77.  Manufacture  of  hard  and  soft  soap. 

Bibliography. 

General  Inorganic  Chemistry. 

-•  •  ^  "ri"*S51E^"  ~"^^ 
Textbook  of  Inorganic  Chemistry,   Hollermann:  Wi- 

ley. 
Principles    of    Inorganic  .  Chemistry,    Ostwald :    The 

Macmillan  Co. 

Modern  Chemistry,  Ramsay:  The  Macmillan  Co. 
General  Chemistry  for  Colleges,  Smith:  Century  Co. 

Organic  Chemistry. 

Textbook  of  Organic  Chemistry,  Hollerman:  Wiley. 
Textbook   of   Organic   Chemistry,   Perkin   &   Kippin: 
J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 


151 


Theoretical  Chemistry. 


Chemical   Theory   for  Beginners,   Dublin   &   Walker: 

The  Macmillan  Co. 

Outlines  of  Theoretical  Chemistry,  Getman:  Wiley. 
New  Era  in  Chemistry,  Jones:  Van  Nostrand. 
Scientific  Foundations  of  Analytical  Chemistry,  Ost- 

wald:  The  Macmillan  Co. 
Theory  for  Beginners,  Ramsay:  The  Macmillan  Co. 

Physical  Chemistry. 

Physical  Chemistry  in  the  Service  of  the  Sciences, 
Van't  Hoff:  University  of  Chicago  Press. 

Introduction  to  Physical  Chemistry,  Walker:  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

Industrial  Chemistry. 

Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry,  Thorpe:  The  Mac- 
millan Co. 

Food  Analysis. 

Food  Inspection  and  Analysis:  Wiley. 
Food  Inspection  and  Analysis:  Leach. 

Historical  Chemistry. 

History  of  Chemistry,  B.  Myer:  The  Macmillan  Co. 
Essays  on  Historical   Chemistry,   Thorpe:   The  Mac- 
millan Co. 

Pedagogy. 

Teaching  of  Chemistry  and  Physics,  Smith  &  Hall'. 

Longsman,  Green  &  Co. 
Teaching  of  Science,  Twiss:  The  Macmillan  Co. 


152 

THE  COMMON  SCIENCES  V. 


Aim. 


This  course  is  planned  for  girls  of  the  fifth  high  school 
year.  It  is  assumed  that  these  girls  have  already  had 
four  years  of  secondary  science  in  concrete  form.  In 
their  courses  in  elementary  science,  in  cooking,  in  house- 
hold appliances  and  in  nursing  and  physiology,  they  have 
become  familiar  with  many  of  the  manifestations  of  na- 
ture that  form  the  bases  of  the  sciences:  physics,  chemis- 
try, biology,  astronomy  and  physiography.  In  these 
earlier  courses,  the  study  has  been  experimental  and 
concerned  with  the  interpretation  and  guidance  of  the 
phenomena  of  nature  rather  than  with  laws  and  systems 
of  science.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  course  to  organize  the 
information  of  pupils  into  logical  form  by  considering 
separately  the  common  sciences.  This  study  should  be  of 
special  benefit  to  girls  who  are  not  to  elect  courses  in 
science  at  college.  It  will  give  a  proper  foundation  for 
the  work  in  nature  study  as  given  in  the  normal  schools 
and  for  all  pupils  will  give  a  general  familiarity  with  sci- 
entific laws,  with  the  accepted  facts  of  science  and  with 
the  discoveries  of  men  working  the  scientific  fields. 

Standards. 

Geology,  4  weeks. 
Biology,  6  weeks. 
Astronomy,  4  weeks. 
Physics,  12  weeks. 
Chemistry,  10  weeks. 

Suggestions. 

This  is  properly  a  textbook  course  aimed  to  give  a  com- 
prehensive view  of  the  field  of  each  science  studied.  Each 
topic  should  be  presented  by  the  teacher  with  simple 
classroom  or  field  demonstration.  The  topics  should  then 
be  organized  by  the  use  of  the  textbook,  discussion  and 
other  available  material  and  should  be  tested  by  complete 
recitations  and  not  by  brief  answers  to  many  questions. 


153 

In  each  subject  the  laws  and  leading  principles  should 
be  carefully  taught  until  each  subject  appears  in  an  or- 
ganized system.  Each  pupil  should  prepare  in  each  sub- 
ject an  extensive  notebook,  planned  with  reference  to 
sources  as  a  help  in  normal  school  work  or  for  study  and 
revision  in  later  years.  Mathematical  demonstrations  and 
the  details  of  complicated  machines  have  no  place  in  this 
course.  Each  pupil  should  have  a  textbook  in  each  of 
the  five  subjects  and  in  the  'choice  of  these  care  should 
be  taken  to  select  those  that  attempt  to  deal  with  the  sub- 
ject as  a  whole,  that  are  descriptive  in  their  character  and 
are  distinctly  good  reading.  For  this  purpose  some  of 
the  older  books  are  better  than  new  ones  which  deal  ex- 
tensively in  scientific  theory,  in  mathematical  proof  and  in 
laboratory  demonstration  of  standardized  experiments. 

Geology  Outline. 

Lessons  on  home  geology. 

1.  General  view  of  surrounding  country. 

2.  Study  of  exposed  sections. 

3.  Study  of  rocks. 

4.  Study  of  soils. 

5.  Study  of  a  stream. 

Structure  of  the  earth. 

1.  Materials,  rocks. 

(a)     Composition,  texture,  classes. 

2.  Arrangement  of  rocks. 

(a)  Original  structure. 

(I)     Stratification,  eruptive  masses,  veins. 

(b)  Subsequent  structure. 

(I)     Inclinations,    faults,    joints,    mountain 
chains,  concretions,  cleavage. 

History  of  the  structure  of  the  earth. 

1.  Theory  of  the  origin  and  structure  of  the  earth  as  a 

whole. 

2.  Geologic  maps  and  sections. 

3.  Theory  of  the  history  of  North  American  continent. 
.    4.     Theory  of  the  history  of  New  Hampshire. 

5.     Theory  of  the  history  of  local  section. 


154 


Biology  Outline. 


1.  Groups  of  animal  life :  protozoa,  sponges  and  coelen- 

terata,    echinoderms,    vermes,    mollusks,    arthro- 
pods, fishes,  reptiles,  birds,  mammals. 

2.  Struggle    for    existence    and    the    development    of 

higher  forms. 

3.  The  laws  of  evolution. 

Astronomy  Outline. 

1.  Definitions,   fundamental   problems   and   sources   of 

information. 

2.  The  earth. 

3.  The  moon. 

4.  The  sun. 

5.  The  planetary  system. 

6.  The  stars  and  other  heavenly  bodies. 

Physics  Outline. 

1.  Gravity. 

2.  "Work  and  machines. 

3.  Motion. 

4.  Pressure  in  fluids. 

5.  Water  power. 

6.  Heat. 

7.  Heat  and  work. 

8.  Electric  currents. 

9.  Indirect  currents. 

10.  Electric  Power. 

11.  Sound  and  "Wave  motion. 

12.  Music. 

13.  Optics. 

14.  Color. 

15.  Radiation. 

Chemistry  Outline. 

1.  Oxygen. 

2.  Hydrogen. 

3.  Composition  of  water  and  combining  weights. 

4.  "Water  and  solution. 

5.  Atoms  and  molecules. 

6.  Chlorine. 

7.  Hydrochloric  acid — chlorides. 

8.  Molecular  composition. 


155 

9.     Atomic  and  molecular  weights. 

10.  Chemical  formulas,   names,    equations   and   calcula- 

tions. 

11.  Sulphuric  acid  and  sulphates. 

12.  Sodium,  potassium  and  their  compounds. 

13.  Acids,  bases  and  salts. 

14.  Sulphur  and  its  sulphides,  oxides  and  acids. 

15.  Nitrogen. 

16.  The  atmosphere  and  nitrogen  compounds. 

17.  The  halogen  group. 

18.  Carbon  and  its  oxides. 

19.  Calcium  and  its  compounds. 

20.  Study  of  production,  distribution,  use  and  impor- 

tance of  the  chief  minerals,  such  as  silicon,  boron, 
iron,  steel,  zinc,  mercury,  magnesium,  copper,  etc. 

Bibliography. 

Geology. 

First  Book  in  Geology,  Shaler:  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Geology,  LeConte :  American  Book  Co. 

The  Geological  Study,  Dana:  American  Book  Co. 

Biology. 

Animal  Studies,  Jordan,  Heath  &  Kellogg:  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co. 

Astronomy. 

Lessons  in  Astronomy,  Young:  Ginn  &  Co. 

Physics. 

High  School  Course  in  Physics,  Gorton :  Ginn  &  Co. 
Mann  and  Twiss:  Scott,  Foresman  &  Co. 

Chemistry. 

Morgan:  The  Macmillan  Company. 

First  Principles  of  Chemistry,  Fuller,  Brownlee  et  al: 

Allyn  &  Bacon. 
General  Chemistry  (Part  I),  Newell:  D.  C.  Heath  & 

Co. 
Essentials  of  Chemistry,  Williams:  Ginn  &  Co. 


156 
CHAPTER  V. 

MATHEMATICS. 

The  old  program  called  for  freshman  algebra,  sophomore 
geometry  and  a  later  review  of  both  subjects.  The  experi- 
ence of  many  years  has  shown  that  abstract  algebra  and 
geometry  for  pupils  of  fourteen  and  fifteen  is  for  many 
excessively  difficult  and  for  some  impossible,  and  these 
courses  have  produced  the  majority  of  high  school  fail- 
ures. The  senior  review  mathematics  has  ordinarily  been 
an  effective  course  with  interested  pupils,  partly  because 
some  pupils  have  unfortunately  been  eliminated  but  more 
because  the  pupils  have  reached  a  maturity  that  makes 
abstract  reasoning  possible. 

The  revised  program  proposes  to  take  advantage  of  this 
condition  and  to  put  abstract  mathematics  in  the  last  two 
years  of  the  program  and  concrete  mathematics  in  the  first 
two.  By  the  1916  program,  pupils  now  have  in  the  sev- 
enth grade  a  year  of  concrete  geometry  and  in  the  eighth 
a  year  of  concrete  algebra.  "With  this  start,  it  is  believed 
that  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  course  the  most  vital  parts  of 
both  algebra  and  geometry  can  be  mastered.  If  not,  the  work 
may  be  completed  in  the  sixth  year,  together  with  solid  ge- 
ometry and  plane  trigonometry.  If  this  seems  difficult,  it  is 
to  be  remembered  that  pupils  come  to  the  senior  year  with 
a  knowledge  of  many  of  the  geometric  constructions  and 
with  much  practice  in  the  use  of  the  algebraic  equations 
and,  in  addition,  that  much  work  in  both  algebra  and 
geometry  may  well  be  eliminated.  In  place  of  the  four 
years  in  mathematics  proposed,  schools  may,  of  course, 
present  five  or  six  years  but  such  schools  must  show  that 
quantitively  five  or  six  years  of  work  has  been  outlined  for 
accomplishment. 

MATHEMATICS  I    (CONCRETE   GEOMETRY). 

Aim. 

The  purpose  of  this  course  is  to  give  boys  and  girls  an 
adequate  set  of  notions  of  certain  of  the  properties  of 


157 

space  relations  in  the  same  way  in  which  they  naturally 
acquire  ideas  in  the  fields  of  other  sciences. 

The  course  is  one  of  construction  and  measurement  and 
discovery  and  not  one  of  demonstration. 

Standards. 

Not  to  exceed  nine  weeks  may  be  spent  in  the  review 
of  arithmetic  and  the  reorganization  of  the  instruction  in 
mathematics  of  the  earlier  grades. 

At  least  twenty-seven  weeks  should  be  devoted  to  con- 
crete geometrical  exercises.  The  work  may  be  based  upon 
one  of  the  suggested  texts  or  upon  lesson  plans  similar  to 
those  to  which  later  reference  is  made. 

Each  pupil  is  to  prepare  a  complete  portfolio  of  con- 
structions which  for  neatness  and  accuracy  will  be  a 
credit  to  himself  as  well  as  to  his  teacher. 

Suggestions. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  work  of  -the  year  should  begin 
with  a  brief  review  of  arithmetic.  There  are  two  reasons 
for  this.  First,  the  pupils  of  the  first-year  high  school 
class  usually  come  from  several  different  schools  and  a 
rapid  review  of  known  material  aids  in  unifying  the  class 
and  preparing  it  for  concerted  work.  Second,  it  enables 
the  .teacher  to  become  acquainted  with  the  mental  habits, 
the  educational  progress  and  the  natural  ability  of  her 
pupils.  The  review  should  be  upon  the  four  fundamental 
operations,  upon  decimals  and  fractions  and  should  be  con- 
stantly used  and  constantly  reviewed  throughout  Years 
I  and  II.  The  teacher  of  mathematics  in  these  years  is  to 
be  held  responsible  for  the  retention  of  the  arithmetic  of 
the  elementary  schools. 

Teachers  of  mathematics  must  understand  that  presen- 
tation of  concrete  geometry  in  Class  I  is  an  entirely  differ- 
ent matter  from  the  teaching  of  the  traditional  course  in 
high  school  geometry. 

No  formal  demonstration  is  expected  or  allowed.  Typ- 
ical high  school  geometry  is  logic.  Concrete  geometry  con- 


158 


sists  of  the  observation, 
measurement  and  drawing  of 
geometrical  forms  and  the 
recognition  of  some  of  the 
simplest  geometrical  truths 
by  visual  proofs  or  through 
measurement  or  comparison 
of  concrete  figures.  Teachers  should  not  begin  with  defi- 
nitions of  terms  but  should  formulate  class-made  defini- 
tions when  definitions  are  needed  by  the  pupils. 

The  pupils  will  need  a  drawing  board,  T  square,  30-60 
triangle,  protractor,  compass  and  scissors.  But  a  short 
time  need  be  devoted  to  learning  how  to  use  this  appara- 
tus. The  use  of  the  T  square  may  be  taught  in  drawing 
parallel  lines,  and  the  triangle  in  drawing  perpendiculars 
For  this  purpose  the  pupils 
should  hold  the  triangle  with 
hypotenuse  to  the  right  and 
draw  the  perpendicular  on  the 
left.  Any  objects  having  right 
angles  may  be  used  as  figures 
for  this  drawing.  One  of  the  walls  of  the  schoolroom,  with 
its  doors,  windows  and  pictures  makes  an  excellent  prob- 
lem. 

Pupils  must  be  taught  to  use  the  compass  so  as  not  to 
make  holes  in  the  paper.  Bracket  designs,  spirals,  ovals 
or  any  of  the  ornamental  fig- 
ures found  in  the  standard 
geometries  are  suitable  fig- 
ures for  practice  with  the 
compass.  This  practice  should 
not  be  continued  too  long 
but,  as  soon  as  the  pupil  has 
gained  some  facility  with 
these  pieces  of  apparatus,  he 
should  be  shown  some  of  the 


159 


ordinary  designs  of  linoleum  and  encouraged  to  make  up 

original     designs     of     his 

own. 


These  may  be  col- 
ored and  of  course  the 
drawing  teacher  will  be 
consulted  as  to  choice  of 
colors.  Squared  paper  is 
most  helpful  in  all  kinds 
of  design  work. 

The  measuring  of 
heights,  distance  of  inac- 
cessible objects,  etc.,  should 
be  done  during  the  fall 
term  while  out-of-door 
work  is  possible.  Any  good 
geometry  will  give  illus- 
trations and  methods  of 
these  problems.  A  simple 
transit  should  be  made  and 
actual  measurements  tak- 
en with  tape  line  of  all 
out-of-door  problems. 

Parallelograms,  triangles,  trapezoids  and  circles  should 
be  cut  from  paper  and  their 
areas  discovered  by  compari- 
son with  the  oblong  or  rec- 
tangle which  has  already 
been  taught  in  the  grades  be- 
low. A  carpenter's  six-foot 
folding  rule  will  be  found 

most  helpful  in  teaching  forms  and  relations  of  straight- 
lined  figures. 

The  drawing  of  arches  commonly  used  in  architecture 
is  a  most  interesting  way  of  teaching  geometrical  truths 
and  forms.  These  arches  may  be  found  in  the  windows 


160 


H  A 


of  churches  and  public  buildings  in 

any  town  or  city  ;  indeed  the  num- 

ber the  class  will  find  will  be  more 

than  it  will  be  advisable  to  use.   Care 

should  be  taken  not  to  let  this  work 

take  more  than  its  share  of  the  time 

allowance.    Dictionaries  and  encyclopedias  will  give  names 

and  constructions  of  many  of  these  arches,  if  they  are  not 

to  be  found  in  any  available  geometry  text,  but  the  actual 

arches  should  be  found  rather  than  book  representations 

copied. 

The  laying  out  of  a  round  curbing  for  a  street  corner 
is  an  excellent  application  of  the  truths  of  tangents. 

All  the  high  school  ge- 
ometries   on    hand 
be    examined    for 
material.        What 
textbooks    give    as 


should 

usable 
these 

"  exer- 

cises, "      "  optionals,  '  '      or 
*  '  applications  '  '      offer      a 
wealth  of  material  through  which  young  pupils  may  be 
taught  geometrical  truths. 

The  truths  of  equal  triangles  are  best  taught  by  laying 
these  triangles  with  the  colored  kindergarten  sticks,  and 
by  use  of  scissors  and  paper.  The  following  type  lesson 
shows  how  the  truth  that  "two  triangles  are  equal  if  three 
sides  of  one  are  equal  to  three  sides  of  another"  may  be 
presented  : 

Take  three  colored  sticks  2  inches,  3  inches,  4  inches 
long  and  lay  them  on  a  piece  of  paper  forming  a  triangle. 
Compare  your  figure  with  that  of  the  student  next  to  you. 
Compare  with  others  in  the  class.  Is  yours  the  same  shape 
as  theirs  ?  Is  it  the  same  size  ?  Are  they  all  equal  ?  How 
many  angles  has  the  figure  ? 

What  is  its  name  ? 

(Triangle,  Trillum,  Trident,  Trio,  Tri-state). 

Make  a  drawing  of  your  triangle  on  a  piece  of  scratch 
paper. 


161 


Cut  out  the  triangle  you  drew  on  paper. 

Compare  with  those  cut  by  the  other  pupils. 

Complete  this  statement.     "Two  triangles  which  have 

the  three  sides  of  one  equal  to  the  three  sides  of  the  other 

>  > 

Think  of  some  triangle  which  you  have  seen  used  in  con- 
structing buildings,  such  as  brackets  for  shingling,  nailing 
of  rafters  together,  etc.  This  property  of  triangles  is  most 
useful  in  constructions  of  all  kinds. 

This  lesson  plan  and  the  cuts  used  are  from  exercises 
used  in  the  junior  high  school  at  Keene  normal.  Pupils 
are  provided  with  sheets  on  which  to  draw,  answer  ques- 
tions, etc.  Copies  of  these  papers  may  be  had  for  use  in 
New  Hampshire  schools  at  cost  on  application  to  the  school. 

In  connection  with  this  work,  teachers  should  keep  the 
arithmetic  constantly  fresh  in  the  pupils'  memory  by  meas- 
uring exercises  requiring  the  use  of  simple  arithmetical 
operations.  Areas  and  volumes  of  standard  forms  and 
computations  of  similar  figures  and  solids  will  provide  an 
abundance  of  such  arithmetical  work. 

An  excellent  review  may  be  given  at  the  end  of  the 
course  by  having  the  pupils  study  this  figure  based  on  the 
inscribed  hexagon. 

Nearly  every  geometrical  truth  of  any  importance  may 
be  found  illustrated  by  these  lines: 


11 


162 
Bibliography. 

The  following  texts  are  suggested : 

Concrete   Geometry,   Nelson:   Rumford  Press,   Concord, 
N.  H. 

Contains  well-planned  exercises  on  proofs  of  theorems. 
Helpful  for  reviews. 

First  Steps  in  Geometry :  Ginn  &  Company. 

Excellent  decorative  designs,  easy  arithmetical  exer- 
cises and  out-of-door  measurements. 

Plane  Geometry,  Wells  &  Hart :  D.  C.  Heath  &  Company. 
Large  number  of  excellent  designs  based  on  geometric 
figures.    A  high  school  text. 

Plane  Geometry,  Wentworth  &  Smith :  Ginn  &  Company. 
Good  compass  exercises  in  introduction.     Fine  illus- 
trations of  visual  proofs  on  page  15.    A  high  school 
book. 

Inventional  Geometry,   Spencer:  American  Book  Com- 
pany. 

This  is  a  small  science  primer  written  years  ago  by  the 
father  of  Herbert  Spencer  and  still  one  of  the  best. 

Concrete  Geometry,  Hornbrook:  American  Book  Com- 
pany. 

Elementary     and     Constructional     Geometry,     Nichols: 
Longsman,  Green  &  Company. 

Observational    Geometry,     Campbell:     American    Book 
Company. 

Junior    High    School    Mathematics:    Wentworth-Smith- 
Brown. 

There  are  upon. the  market  a  number  of  new  textbooks 
on  junior  high  school  mathematics  but   these   commonly 


163 

deal  with  modified  arithmetic.  They  contain  many  valuable 
suggestions  but  may  not  be  followed  closely  in  teaching  this 
course. 

MATHEMATICS  II    (CONCRETE  ALGEBRA). 

Aim. 

The  instruction  should  cause  the  fundamental  concep- 
tion of  algebra  to  register  and  become  a  part  of  the  pupils  ' 
working  mathematical  equipment.  Rote  instruction  which 
leaves  the  pupils  with  merely  a  set  of  verbal  memories  is 
to  be  avoided.  The  pedagogy  is  the  same  as  that  for  the 
arithmetic  of  the  first  and  second  grades. 

Standards. 

In  the  year,  the  following  subjects  should  be  mastered  : 

Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division  of 
polynomials,  multipliers  and  divisors  not  containing  more 
than  two  terms. 

Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  division  and  re- 
duction of  fractions,  numerical  coefficients  not  larger  than 
25. 

Linear  equations  of  one  and  two  unknown  quantities. 

Fractional  equations  containing  one  unknown,  denomi- 
nators monomial. 

Removing  of  parentheses. 

Short  methods  of  multiplication  avoiding  fractional 
terms,  such  as:  (a2  +  %b)  (a2  +  %b). 

Factoring  such  types  as  :    a2  +  2ab  +  b2 

a2  —  2ab  +  b2 
a2  —  b2 


a3  —  bs 

a4  —  b4 

Solution  of  quadratic  equations  of  the  form  of  x2  —  7x 
18  by  factoring. 
Evaluating  simple  forms  of  literal  equations. 


164 

Suggestions. 

The  equation  is  the  center  of  the  work  and  it  should  be 
used  in  the  solution  of  very  many  problems.  These  prob- 
lems should  deal  entirely  with  actual  and  familiar  situa- 
tions. 

Processes  should  be  taught  only  when  they  are  actually 
needed  in  the  solution  of  the  equations  which  occur  in  the 
experiences  of  the  class. 

Either  in  the  concrete  geometry  of  Grade  VII  or  in  their 
arithmetic  work,  the  pupils  have  become  familiar  with  the 
ordinary  formulas  of  mensuration,  such  as : 

Parallelogram    A  =  bh  or  S  =  ab 

Triangle  A  =  y2 a  X  b  or  a—  1/2  ab  or  A  =  a  X 

Trapezoid  A  =  i/2  h  (a  +  b)  or  H  (a  +  b) 

2 

Circle  C  =  2ird        C  =  27rr        A:=7rR2 

Review  these  formulas  by  some  examples  of  real  measure- 
ments. 

Recall  other  principles  of  •  arithmetic  which  can  be  ex- 
pressed by  formulas  asI  =  pXrXt  t  =  I  r  =  I 

pr  pt 

Amount  =  interest  +  principal. 

Cost  =  price  times  number  of  articles,  etc. 

Use  small  numbers  in  this  work  and  call  measurements 
to  the  nearest  foot  or  inch  to  avoid  fractions. 

Let  the  pupils  make  up  expressions  such  as  ab  +  cd  —  f 
and  evaluate  them  using  different  values  for  the  letters. 

Require  pupils  to  check  every  arithmetical  process  in  ad- 
dition, subtraction,  multiplication  and  division  so  that 
pupils  are  absolutely  sure  that  the  numerical  part  of  their 
answer  is  correct,  if  the  method  is  correct. 

After  a  week  of  drill  in  these  formulas  to  familiarize 


165 

pupils  with  use  of  letters,  teach  addition.   Begin  with  posi- 
tive quantities  such  as :     3a     2  mn       4x2  then  take  up  a 

4a     5  mn     10x2 


positive   and   negative,   such   as  :      —  6a     +    2x    Do   not 

4a    —  lOx 


attempt  to  explain  the  reasons  for  any  rules.  Give  this 
rule,  "subtract  the  smaller  coefficient  from  the  greater  and 
give  the  answer  the  sign  of  the  greater"  or  any  similar 
simple  rule.  Have  pupils  make  up  a  page  of  these  exam- 
ples and  give  to  other  pupils  to  work.  They  will  like  them 
better  than  book  examples.  Each  one  should  do  a  hundred 
of  these  at  least. 

Place  this  example  on  the  board  : 

9  bu.     2  pks.     3  qts.  and  let  the  class  recall  their 
4  bu.     3  pks.     4  qts. 

addition  of  compound  numbers.  Then  write  the  same  ex- 
ample 9b-f2p  +  3 


A  few  such  illustrations  will  suffice  to  introduce  addition 
of  polynomials.  Drill  on  these  until  familiar,  then  add  col- 
umns containing  both  plus  and  minus  quantities.  Check 
all  addition  by  adding  up  and  down.  Insist  on  absolute 
correctness  of  numerical  work. 

In  beginning  subtraction  place  a  variety  of  examples 
illustrating  all  possible  cases  on  the  board  thus: 

5a        5a    —  5a    —  5a     3a    —  3a    —  3a        3a 
3a   —  3a         3a     —  3a    5a         5a    —  5a   —  5a 

Teach  one  rule.  ' '  Think  of  the^ubtrahend  with  its  sign 
changed  and  proceed  exactly  as  in  addition. ' '  In  the  pupil 
who  is  visually  minded  there  is  no  harm  in  changing  the 
subtrahend  or  in  writing  the  "changed  signs"  in  small 
figures  above  the  signs  of  the  subtrahend,  using  a  light 


166 

pencil  mark,  until  the  process  is  understood.  Attempt  no 
explanation  of  reasons.  Competition  between  rows  of  pu- 
pils on  percentage  of  correctness,  etc.,  will  stimulate  inter- 
est. Drill  for  a  wreek  and  for  the  two  succeeding  weeks  use 
the  first  ten  minutes  of  each  recitation  in  review  of  addi- 
tion and  subtraction. 

Any  text  will  furnish  the  class  with  simple  equations  of 
one  or  two  unknown  quantities  which  can  be  solved  by  ad- 
dition and  subtraction,  but  much  more  interest  will  be 
shown  and  far  better  results  secured  if  pupils  are  encour- 
aged to  make  up  their  own  examples. 

The  mystery  of  algebra  disappears  when  pupils  find  they 
can  make  up  just  as  good  examples  and  problems  as  the 
writer  of  the  textbook.  They  will  take  delight  in  setting 
examples  for  their  classmates  as,  "I  am  thinking  of  a 
number.  If  I  multiply  this  number  by  7  (7n)  and  then 
add  2,  I  shall  have  30.  What  is  the  number?"  Or,  "If 
I  multiply  the  number  by  4  (16)  and  add  10,  the  sum  will 
equal  22  more  than  the  number." 

(4n  +  10  =  22 +  n) 

Any  good  algebra  textbook  will  suggest  varieties  of  equa- 
tions of  this  class. 

Next  take  up  equations  containing  two  unknown  quanti- 
ties. Have  the  pupils  make  up  equations  and  give  to  each 
other  for  solution.  Introduce  problems  containing  one  or 
two  unknown  quantities  and  have  pupils  make  up  a  great 
many  such  problems. 

Multiplication  follows  now  very  easily.  Keep  all  co- 
efficients small,  none  over  25.  After  the  pupils  can  multiply 
a  polynomial  of  four  terms  by  one  of  two  terms,  introduce 
a  few  decimal  coefficients,  two  places  only,  and  review 
addition  and  subtraction,  using  decimal  coefficients. 

Leave  division  until  the  latter  part  of  the  year. 

After  pupils  can  add,  subtract  and  multiply  with  facility 
and  solve  simple  equations,  take  up  the  same  processes  with 
fractions.  Use  only  small  numerical  coefficients,  not  larger 


167 

than  25,  in  fraction  work,  and  insist  on  constant  checking 
in  all  arithmetical  processes  to  produce  absolute  accuracy. 

The  pupils  are  now  ready  for  short  processes  in  multi- 
plication. Teach  these  four: 

(a  +  b)  (a  +  b);  (a  —  b)  (a  —  b) ;  (a  +  b)  (a  —  b) ; 
(a  +  3)  (a  +  7),  and  just  as  you  would  teach  in  arithme- 
tic, that  6  is  2  X  3.  After  teaching  that  2  X  3  is  6,  teach 
that  a2  +  2ab  +  b2  may  be  written  (a  +  b)  (a  +  b)  and 
the  same  with  the  other  three  forms  of  factoring. 

The  other  case  of  factoring,  where  terms  have  a  com- 
mon factor,  should  be  taught  after  division. 

Division  should  follow  factoring,  beginning  with  the 
simplest  forms  and  in  long  division  using  no  divisor  of 
more  than  two  terms. 

Forms  like  a3  +  b3  -f-  a  +  b  and  a4  —  b4  -r-  a  —  b  may 
be  given  but  not  drilled  upon,  with  the  fulness  required  by 
most  texts,  and  all  less  usual  qlasses  of  factoring  should  be 
omitted. 

After  division  is  mastered,  review  fractions,  including 
reduction  to  lowest  terms,  addition,  subtraction,  multipli- 
cation and  division,  using  the  factorable  forms. 

Simple  quadratic  equations  which  can  be  solved  by  fac- 
toring such  as  x2  +  8x  +  15  should  be  taught  and,  if  there 
is  time,  the  substitution  of  numerical  values  in  formulas 
and  evaluating  literal  equations  of  the  simple  formula  type 
for  the  various  letters,  avoiding  those  involving  radicals 
and  quadratics. 

Bibliography. 

Any  modern  text  in  algebra  may  be  used,  provided  that 
sufficient  additions  and  eliminations  are  made.  The  num- 
ber of  simple  problems  and  examples  performed  should  be 
very  large  and  should  produce  habitual  accuracy  in  the  use 
of  the  fundamental  operations.  From  any  book  used 
should  be  eliminated  all  unnatural  problems,  all  complex 
operations,  all  general  rules  and  most  general  formulas. 


168 

MATHEMATICS  V    (ALGEBRA  AND  GEOMETRY). 


Aim. 


It  is  believed  that  the  excessive  failure  in  the  traditional 
high  school  course  in  freshman  algebra  and  sophomore 
geometry  is  due  to  the  fact  that  these  courses  are  abstract 
in  form  and  expression  and  are  commonly  given  to  pupils 
at  an  age  when  abstract  reasoning  is  impossible.  It  is  held 
that  these  courses  are  entirely  fitted  to  the  development  of 
Years  V  and  VI  but  not  the  earlier  years.  Accordingly, 
courses  in  concrete  mathematics  are  given  in  Years  I  and 
II  and  in  abstract  mathematics  in  Years  V  and  VI. 

This  program  assumes  that  pupils  of  Class  V  maturity 
who  have  had  two  years  of  concrete  mathematics  will  be 
able  in  a  single  year  to  cover  the  greater  part  of  the  work 
in  mathematics  ordinarily  given  in  the  first  two  years  of 
the  earlier  high  school  programs  and  can  become  sufficiently 
familiar  with  the  truths  of  abstract  mathematics  for  all 
probable  needs.  It  assumes  that  in  curricula  where  an  ab- 
stract course  is  given  in  Year  VI  all  ordinary  high  school 
mathematics  may  be  covered.  Schools  which  do  not  hold 
this  view  may  continue  to  give  three  courses  in  abstract 
mathematics  but  in  that  case  the  third  course  should  con- 
tinue the  subject  into  fresh  fields  and  should  not  be  largely 
devoted  to  review  of  familiar  material.  The  standards  set 
in  this  and  the  following  courses  are  tentative  and  will  be 
modified  as  experience  accumulates. 

Algebra,  20  weeks. 

Standards. 

The  elementary  operations. 
Special  methods  in  multiplication  and  division. 
Factoring  and  the  solution  of  equations  by  factoring, 
and  the  determination  of  the  highest  common  factor. 

Fractions,  including  complex  fractions  and  the  lowest 


169 

common  multiple  treated  in  common  with  the  related  ma- 
terial on  fractions. 

Fractional  and  literal  equations. 

Problems  involving  single  equations. 

Simultaneous  linear  equations  containing  two  or  three 
unknowns. 

Statistics  containing*  positive  and  negative  numbers 
graphically  represented.  The  graph  of  a  linear  equation  in 
two  variables.  The  graph  of  simultaneous  linear  equa- 
tions. 

Exponents,  including  zero,  fractional  and  negative. 

Radicals,  Surds  and  Imaginaries.  The  square  root  of 
polynomials  and  of  numerical  quantities. 

Quadratic  equations  both  numerical  and  literal. 

Simultaneous  equations  involving  quadratics. 

Problems  involving  quadratic  equations. 

Suggestions. 

Much  time  is  wasted  in  the  first  'course  in  algebra  be- 
cause in  a  great  many  cases  the  high  school  teachers  are  not 
adequately  acquainted  with  the  work,  methods  and  phrase- 
ology used  in  the  elementary  grades.  Now  under  the  new 
arrangement  of  the  courses  in  mathematics,  it  is  highly 
important  that  teachers  know  what  work  has  been  covered 
and  what  work  is  expected  to  be  covered. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  the  use  of  graphical  methods 
and  the  teacher  should  emphasize  the  practical  application 
of  algebraic  equations  and  formulas.  In  this  course  com- 
plicated problems  and  unnecessary  processes  should  be 
omitted  in  favor  of  abundant  practice  in  the  useful  opera- 
tions. From  most  textbooks  there  may  be  judicious  elimi- 
nations. 

Bibliography. 

First,  Second  and  Third  Mathematics,  Breslich:  The 
University  of  Chicago  Press. 


170 

First  Course  in  Algebra,  Hawkes,  Luby  &  Teuton :  Ginn 
&  Company. 

First  Course  in  Algebra,  Wells  &  Hart :  D.  C.  Heath  & 
Company. 

Elementary  Algebra,  Stone  &  Millis:  Benj.  H.  Sanborn 
&  Company. 

Plane  Geometry,  16  weeks. 
Standards. 

The  major  part  of  the  work  of  the  text  Young  and 
Schwartz  or  the  equivalent. 

Not  less  than  two  hundred  original  exercises  strictly 
geometric  in  character. 

Suggestions. 

A  great  many  of  our  textbooks  begin  the  subject  of 
geometry  with  a  set  of  formal  definitions,  axioms  and 
postulates.  It  is  not  a  help  to  high  school  students  to  give 
them  at  the  outset  formal  definitions  or  proofs  of  proposi- 
tions which  appear  to  them  so  obvious  that  they  can  see 
no  reason  for  a  proof.  Teachers  must  remember  that  the 
main  object  is  not  to  teach  the  pupils  to  know  geometry 
but  rather  to  lead  them  to  think  geometry.  The  early 
proofs  should  be  intuitive,  inductive  and  experimental, 
gradually  leading  up  to  the  formal  method  of  proof  and 
it  will  be  found  that  the  pupils  will  gradually  on  their 
own  part  recognize  the  advantage  of  the  reasoning  process 
over  that  of  the  process  of  measuring.  It  will  be  of  great 
advantage  in  the  teaching  of  this  subject  to  make  the 
pupils  feel  satisfied  with  the  early  forms  of  proof.  This 
can  best  be  done  by  getting  the  pupils  to  see  the  truth  of 
geometric  statements  through  mental  or  physical  inspec- 
tion of  the  figures  rather  than  by  the  long,  formal  proof. 
Symmetry,  an  overlooked  subject  and  one  found  treated  in 
the  latter  chapters  of  most  books,  is  one  means  of  bringing 


171 

points,  lines  and  other  parts  of  certain  figures  into  such 
a  relation  that  tHe  whole  situation  is  grasped  by  one  mental 
act. 

Bibliography. 

Plane  Geometry,  Wentworth  &  Smith :  Ginn  &  Company. 

Plane  Geometry,  Slaught  &  Lennes :  Allyn  &  Bacon. 

Plane  Geometry,  Stone  &  Millis:  Benj.  H.  Sanborn  & 
Company. 

Plane  Geometry,  Wells:  D.  C.  Heath  &  Company. 

First  and  Second  Year  Mathematics,  Breslich :  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  Press. 

MATHEMATICS  VI    ( SOLID  GEOMETRY  AND  TRIGONOMETRY)  '. 

Plane  Geometry,  4  weeks. 

The  review  and  completion  of  the  work  in  plane  geom- 
etry of  the  fifth  year. 

Solid  Geometry,  12  weeks. 
Standards. 

Three  books  of  the  text  Wentworth  and  Smith  or  the 
equivalent,  with  not  less  than  one  hundred  originals  strictly 
geometric  in  character. 

Bibliography. 

Solid  Geometry,  Slaught  &  Lennes :  Allyn  &  Bacon. 

Solid  Geometry,  Wentworth  &  Smith :  Ginn  &  Company. 

Solid  Geometry,  Stone  &  Millis :  Benj.  H.  Sanborn  & 
Company. 

Breslich  Third  Year  Mathematics :  University  of  Chicago 
Press. 


172 

Advanced  Algebra,  10  weeks. 
Standards. 

Equations  solved  like  quadratics. 
General  properties  of  quadratic  equations. 
Graphs  of  quadratic  equations  in  two  unknowns. 
Solution  of  equations  of  degree  higher  than  the  second. 
Synthetic   division,    Descartes   rule    of   signs :    The    Re- 
mainder Theorem :  Newton 's  method  of  division. 
Indeterminate  equations  of  the  first  degree. 
Arithmetical  and  geometrical  progressions. 
The  binomial  theorem  for  positive  integral  exponents. 
Logarithms,  exponential  equations  and  the  slide  rule. 
Determinants. 

Permutations  and  combinations. 
Probability. 
Continued  fractions. 

Suggestions. 

In  dealing  with  the  graph  in  the  mathematics  of  the 
sixth  year,  the  teacher  is  given  an  opportunity  to  give  the 
pupils  a  taste  of  methods  different  from  any  previously 
known  by  introducing  a  few  of  the  fundamental  principles 
of  analytic  geometry.  For  example,  the  class  has  plotted 
a  linear  equation.  Now  with  this  same  line  have  the  pupils 
construct  the  necessary  figure  and  derive  analytically  the 
two  point  form  of  the  equation,  of  the  straight  line  and 
also  the  equation  for  the  length  of  this  line.  The  means 
of  check  is  self-evident.  The  pupils  have  had  not  only  an 
opportunity  to  apply  in  a  practical  way  their  knowledge 
gained  through  plane  geometry,  but  they  have  had  opened 
to  them  a  new  concept  that  will  stimulate  a  desire  on  part 
of  those  who  are  to  continue  their  work  in  the  higher 
branches  of  mathematics. 


173 

Bibliography. 

Advanced  Algebra,  Schultz:  The  Macmillan  Company. 

Algebra  for  College  and  Schools,  Hall  and  Knight  (re- 
vised) :  The  Macmillan  Company. 

College  Algebra,  Wells:  D.  C.  Heath  &  Company. 

College  Algebra,  Wentworth:  Ginn  &  Company. 

Second  Course  Algebra,  Hawkes,  Luby  &  Teuton. 

Breslich  Books,  I,  II  and  III:  University  of  Chicago 
Press. 

Plane  Trigonometry,  10  weeks. 
Standards. 

Trigonometric  functions  of  acute  angles. 
Changes  of  the  trigonometric  functions. 
Graphs  of  the  trigonometric  functions. 
Use  of  the  table  of  logarithmic  functions  by  the  solution 
of  right  and  oblique  triangles. 

Relations  between  sides  and  angles  of  oblique  triangles. 

Area  of  an  oblique  triangle. 

Relation  between  functions  of  several  angles. 

The  solution  of  trigonometric  equations. 

Suggestions. 

The  trigonometric  functions  are  first  to  be  shown  by 
means  of  drawing  and  actual  measurement,  and  not 
taught  by  memory.  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  derive 
the  exact  values  for  the  functions  of  30°,  45°,  60°,  90°, 
180°,  270°,  360°,  without  the  use  of  the  tables.  The  class 
should  construct  a  trigonometric  Function  Indicator.  This 
instrument  will  show  the  actual  change  of  values  and  rela- 
tions between  sides  and  angles  of  a  right  triangle  which 
take  place  as  the  acute  angles  vary  between  0°  and  90° 
much  more  satisfactory  than  any  number  of  drawings  that 


174 

can  be  placed  on  the  blackboard.  During  the  course  there 
should  be  several  outdoor  exercises  involving  the  use  of  the 
level  and  the  transit.  School  made  instruments  will  serve 
for  this  purpose. 

Bibliography. 

New  Complete  Trigonometry,  Wells  or  Wentworth. 

Elements  of  Plane  Trigonometry,  Crockett:  American 
Book  Company. 

Third  Year  Mathematics,  Breslich:  University  of  Chi- 
cago Press. 

Conclusion. 

The  requirements  will  be  fully  met  in  algebra,  plane 
geometry,  solid  geometry,  advanced  algebra  and  plane  trig- 
onometry by  those  schools  that  complete  the  work  of  the 
Breslich  Books,  I,  II  and  III. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
DOMESTIC  ARTS. 
The  Aim. 

The  purpose  of  courses  in  the  domestic  arts  in  the  public 
school  is  primarily  vocational  because  such  subjects  as 
cooking,  sewing,  millinery,  household  appliances,  home 
nursing,  physiology,  household  organization,  and  household 
management,  are  directly  helpful  in  preparing  girls  for  the 
vocation  of  home-making ;  a  vocation  which  becomes  the 
privilege  of  ninety  out  of  one  hundred  women  to  engage  in 
as  their  life  work.  But  unlike  any  other  human  vocation 
home-making  may  be  culturally  as  broadly  developmental 
as  any  of  the  so-called  professions  if  the  home-maker  is 
early  trained  through  education  to  follow  the  historic  and 


175 

pre-historic  footsteps  made  by  the  race  during  the  ages  in 
which  the  home  evolved  and  woman  found  her  supreme 
place  as  the  mother,  maker,  and  moulder  of  civilized  society. 

Making  wholesome  food  for  the  nourishment  of  the  human 
body  is  as  much  a  fine  art  as  painting  or  sculpture  which 
please  the  eye,  or  music  which  delights  the  ear. 

Creating  a  hygienic  and  attractive  dress  is  as  much  the 
work  of  an  artist  as  is  decorating  a  china  vase.  The  fact 
that  it  is  useful  should  not  detract  from  the  1 1  joy  of  accom- 
plishment" accompanying  its  production.  "Composing"  a 
neat,  satisfying  living  room  or  a  cool,  comfortable  kitchen 
is  as  much  the  work  of  an  artist  as  is  the  composition  of  a 
painting  or  piece  of  literature.  In  fact,  it  is  incomparably 
more  important  since  the  family  reared  in  a  beautiful  home 
adds  to  the  sum  total  of  good  taste  and  fine  culture  in  the 
world.  These  illustrations  are  sufficient  to  justify  the  be- 
lief that  making  a  good  home  is  quite  as  important  for  the 
welfare  of  the  race  as  is  composing  a  musical  classic,  writ- 
ing an  enduring  poem,  or  modelling  a  statue  in  bronze,  and 
this  being  so,  the  art  of  the  home-maker  in  all  of  its  phases 
is  a  liberal  as  well  as  a  practical  art. 

The  aim,  moreover,  in  New  Hampshire  public  school  ad- 
ministration, is  so  to  shape  and  develop  school  plans  that  no 
girl  shall  pass  from  the  school  into  her  life  work  without 
getting  at  least  two  years  of  systematic  work  in  cooking  and 
sewing.  These  years  are  the  seventh  and  eighth,  and  may 
be  in  the  elementary  school  or  in  the  junior  high  school  if 
the  school  system  has  the  modern  organization. 

COOKING  i  (SEVENTH  GRADE). 
The  Aim. 

The  aim  is  to  prepare  all  girls  by  actual  experience  (a) 
to  save  perishable  food  products  by  drying,  canning  and 
preserving,  or  pickling,  (b)  to  cook  and  serve  wholesome 
food  for  everyday  people,  (c)  to  prepare  suitable  food  for 
infants  and  invalids.  It  is  not  the  aim  to  teach  either  the 
chemistry  of  foods  or  theories  of  nutrition,  and  the  too 

I 


176 

common  practice  in  cooking  classes  of  lecturing  on  food 
constituents,  and  their  function  in  the  human  body  is  so 
far  beyond  the  comprehension  of  high  school  pupils  that  it 
seems  only  to  waste  time  and  effort,  and  obscure  the  real  ob- 
ject which  is  to  develop  through  practice  the  art  of  canning, 
cooking,  and  serving  food. 

Standards. 

Since  it  is  proposed  to  cover  the  same  subject  matter 
in  Years  I  and  II,  which  has  hitherto  been  covered  in  the 
freshman  year  of  the  four  years  high  school,  it  is  necessary 
to  distribute  the  requirements  given  in  previous  programs 
and  circulars  for  the  ninth  grade,  so  that  Year  I  and  Year 
II  may  have  each  their  fair  part. 

CANNING,   ETC. 

Follow  the  requirements  given  in  Institute  Circular  No. 
1,  Series  1914-15,  page  1,  A. 

SERVING   MEALS. 

Serve  at  least  two  meals  per  term,  the  first  one  not  later 
than  November  1st. 

Suggestions. 

See  Program  of  Studies  for  Elementary  Schools,  pp.  212- 
216. 

There  ought  to  be  a  much  larger  amount  of  canning  than 
the  minimum  set,  and  there  will  be  if  the  teaching  is  ef- 
fective, for  pupils  will  do  additional  work  at  home,  or  the 
teacher  can  make  the  school  equipment  serve  as  a  canning 
center  where  on  Saturdays  or  after  school  pupils  will  can 
the  products  of  their  home  gardens. 

The  meals  served  must  be  practical  and  economical,  hav- 
ing due  regard  for  the  cost  involved. 

Bibliography. 

See  Year  II  below. 


177 


COOKING  ii  (EIGHTH  GRADE) 


The  Aim. 
See  Year  I. 

Requirements. 


CANNING. 


Review  the  canning  by  requiring  each  pupil  to  put  up  at 
least  two  cans  under  each  class,  a,  b,  c,  as  given  in  Circular 
No.  1,  Series  1914-15  under  A. 

SERVING   MEALS. 

Serve  at  least  two  meals  per  term. 
Suggestions. 

The  twelve  meals  served  during  the  two  years  must  be 
systematically  planned  so  that  every  important  class  of 
foods  will  be  made  use  of.  It  will  be  found  that  all  the 
standard  dishes  commonly  served  in  the  homes  of  the  com- 
munity can  be  made  use  of  and  some  of  them  repeated  if 
these  twelve  menus  are  well  thought  out. 

Bibliography,  for  both  Years  I  and  II. 

Pedagogical. 
Institute  Circulars  No.     Series,     Page.     Dealing  with : 


5     1913-14     1-  4 
2     1914-15     1-  2 


Cooking. 


57 

1915-16 

2-  4 

58 

1915-16 

1-  3 

5 

1913-14 

5-  8 

Menus,  etc. 

1 

1914-15 

1-  3 

Requirements 

in  general. 

2 

1914-15 

2-  4 

Administration. 

57 

1915-16 

4-  8 

Methods. 

57 

1915-16 

9-13 

Menus. 

58 

1915-16 

3-11 

Methods. 

66 

1916-17 

1-  2 

General. 

178 

COOKING  FOR  THE  SICK.       (PART  OF   THE  COURSE  IN  NURSING 
AND  PHYSIOLOGY  IV.) 

The  Aim. 

To  give  pupils  experience  in  preparing  cooling  drinks 
and  nutritious,  easily-digested  foods  suitable  for  sick  and 
convalescing  people. 

Requirements. 

Pupils  must  prepare  one  or  more  of  the  foods  or  drinks  in 
each,  of  the  five  classes  given  in  Institute  Circular  59,  Se- 
ries 1915-16,  page  17  and  following. 

Excursions.  The  class  must  take  at  least  one  excursion 
each  term  as  suggested  in  Circular  59,  page  5. 

Experiments.  The  experiments  given  in  Circular  59  and 
numbered  from  1  to  26  are  to  be  carried  out  in  full  and  the 
observations,  methods,  apparatus  and  conclusions  in  each 
case  must  be  recorded  in  a  notebook  used  only  for  this 
purpose.  This  notebook  must  be  completed  at  the  end 
of  each  experiment  and  will  be  called  for  by  inspectors. 

The  class  project  given  on  page  9  is  an  important  one 
and  each  class  must  prepare  a  set  of  bottles  containing  the 
constituents  of  a  quart  of  milk. 

COOKING   FOR   THE   WELD.       (PART   OF   THE   COURSE   IN    HOUSE- 


HOLD  MANAGEMENT   VI.) 
\ 


The  Aim. 


This  course  covering  not  more  than  six  weeks  and  involv- 
ing about  ten  practical  cooking  projects  and  an  equal  num- 
ber of  laboratory  demonstrations  is  intended  to  teach  only 
so  much  of  the  so-called*  science  of  dietetics  as  can  be  made 
use  of  in  an  intelligent  selection  and  combination  of  food 
materials. 


179 

It  is  properly  a  part  of  household  management  because 
the  buying  and  raising  of  food  is  a  very  important  factor  in 
economical  housekeeping  and  market  prices  often  bear  little 
relation  to  food  values. 

Standards. 

Pupils  must  compute  many  menus  based  on  what  they 
have  eaten  for  a  meal  or  on  such  menus  as  are  served  by  the' 
pupils  in  years  I  and  II. 

There  must  be  not  less  than  four  excursions  to  markets, 
cold  storage  plants,  bakers,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  getting 
familiar  with  the  available  food  supply,  its  cost,  how  it  is 
handled,  etc. 

Bibliography. 

Circular  No.  74,  Series  1916-17,  gives  a  working  plan 
with  considerable  detail  and  must  be  followed  in  its  essen- 
tials. 

COOKING   III   AND   V. 

In  these  years,  there  is  no  school  work  in  cooking  but, 
as  in  sewing,  there  must  be  constant  home  work  and  the 
teacher  must  ascertain  that  this  is  actually  being  done. 

At  least  a  portion  of  one  period  a  month  should  be  de- 
voted to  class  discussion  of  home  cooking  projects,  plans 
and  results. 

SEWING  i  (SEVENTH  GRADE). 
Aim. 

The  aim  is  to  give  each  girl  experience  in  making  sub- 
stantially everything  she  wears  and  to  do  this  by  always 
working  on  some  project  which  at  the  end  gives  a  useful, 
usable  product. 

There  is  absolutely  no  excuse  for  the  senseless,  unpeda- 
gogical  sampler  which  from  the  start  was  a  device  of  that 


180 

type  of  school  mind  which  sees  nothing  apart  from  formal 
rules  and  logical  definitions.  The  six  weeks  September 
and  October  agony  over  "stitches"  is  another  manifestation 
of  the  exploded  theory  of  ' '  deferred  values, ' '  getting  ready 
to  do  something  where  the  getting  ready  and  the  doing 
ought  to  be  coincident. 

The  first  lesson  in  sewing  for  girls  of  this  age,  whether 
they  have  had  sewing  in  school  previously  or  not,  must  be 
a  productive  effort  on  a  real  piece  of  work.  It  may  be 
hemming  a  towel,  or  better,  making  an  apron  or  cap,  and 
there  is  nothing  to  prevent  starting  immediately  on  a  simple, 
everyday  dress.  There  is  no  inherent  sequence  in  sewing 
as  there  is  in  Euclidean  geometry.  The  only  pedagogical 
law  that  governs  here  is  the  law  of  interest  which  requires 
only  that  the  pupil  recognizes  the  need  of  some  useful  arti- 
cle ;  that  the  material  for  making  this  is  at  hand,  and  then 
that  the  teacher  proceeds  directly  to  show  the  pupils 
how  to  do  the  work.  See  Institute  Circular  No.  1,  Series 
1914-15,  page  3.  Also,  No.  66,  Series  1916-17,  page  2. 

Standards. 

Pupils  during  Year  I  must  complete  at  least  one  project 
from  each  of  the  following  classes : 

CLASS  A.      UNDERWEAR. 

Chemise,  nightgown,  corset  cover,  drawers,  combination 
underwear,  bloomers. 

/ 

CLASS  B.     OUTSIDE  CLOTHING. 

Blouse,  shirt  waist,  summer  dress,  petticoat,  kimono, 
child's  dress. 

CLASS  C.      KNITTING. 

Wool  mittens,  helmet  cap,  scarf. 


181 


CLASS  D.      DARNING  AND  PATCHING. 

Stockings,  gloves,  sweater,  and  all  kinds  of  mending  on 
underwear  or  outside  clothing.  (This  is  not  to  be  on  mere 
pieces  of  cloth,  or  discarded  stockings,  but  on  real  articles 
which  need  to  be  repaired  because  they  are  to  be  used.) 

SEWING  n.     (EIGHTH  GRADE.) 
The  Aim. 

See  Year  I  above. 

Standards. 

During  Year  II  each  pupil  must  make  at  least  one  article 
not  previously  made  from  each  of  classes  A  and  B ;  must 
continue  darning  and  patching  as  needed,  and  make  one 
article  or  more  from  each  of  the  following  classes: 

CLASS  E.     BEDDING,  ETC. 

Pillow  cases,  sheets,  towels,  a  patchwork  quilt,  a  braided 
rug. 

CLASS  F. 

Woolen  dress,  outside  winter  garment,  knitted  sweater. 

CLASS  G.     EMBROIDERED  WORK,  ETC. 

Curtains,  table  runners,  splashers,  furniture  covers. 

Suggestions. 

If  sewing  is  approved  for  any  given  school  on  the  old 
four-year  high  school  basis,  the  work  to  be  accomplished 
in  the  first  year  of  the  program  must  be  a  full  equivalent 
of  that  outlined  here  for  both  I  and  II. 

For  the  half-courses  in  cooking  and  sewing,  at  least  two 
double  periods  per  week  are  required  throughout  the  two 
years.  About  one-half  of  the  time  should  be  given  to  each 


182 

subject  by  a  reasonable  distribution  rather  than  by  a  fixed 
schedule.  There  should  be  no  period  given  to  sewing  dur- 
ing the  canning  season. 

Where  school  work  in  cooking  and  sewing  is  delayed  until 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  do 
the  full  work  planned  without  some  increase  in  the  time 
just  allotted  for  these  courses.  In  all  schools,  the  work 
in  both  subjects  should  begin  at  least  two  years  earlier,  as 
the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  are  particularly  satisfactory  years 
for  the  beginning  of  work  in  cooking  and  sewing. 

Bibliography. 

See  Program  of  Studies  for  Elementary  Schools,  Third 
Edition,  1916,  Chapter  VIII. 

SEWING  III-VI. 

Sewing  as  an  accredited  part  of  the  program  with  unit 
recognition  ends  with  the  above  outlined  work  for  Years  I 
and  II  but,  as  home  work,  under  the  direction  and  helpful 
suggestions  of  the  teacher,  there  ought  to  be  a  continuation 
of  useful  sewing  throughout  the  high  school.  It  may  not 
be  done  on  school  time,  however,  for  it  is  no  longer  justifi- 
able to  continue  teaching  the  subject.  Every  girl  should 
make  at  least  one  dress  a  year  for  everyday  use.  Each 
girl,  should,  of  course,  make  her  graduation  dress.  In  addi- 
tion, she  should  each  year  remodel  some  garment  that  has 
become  worn  or  through  changes  in  style  has  lost  its  at- 
tractiveness. This  work  should  include  the  cleansing  and 
perhaps  the  dyeing  of  the  goods. 

The  work  of  Years  III  to  VI  must  be  so  organized  that 
class  time  is  not  expended  in  re-teaching  sewing,  but  teach- 
ers must  guide  and  encourage  pupils  in  home  work  to  make 
certain  that  the  instruction  and  practice  of  Years  I  and 'II 
are  resulting  in  housewifely  activities.  School  inspectors 
will  be  directed  to  determine  that  this  is  actually  being 
done.  It  is  suggested  that  in  each  of  the  above  years  a 


183 

portion,  at  least,  of  one  period  a  month  be  alloted  to  class 
consideration  of  home  work,  with  an  exhibition  of  results. 
At  this  time,  the  pupils  should  present  their  sewing  diffi- 
culties to  the  class  and  teacher  for  solution  and  desired 
work  should  be  planned  in  accordance  with  the  changes 
dictated  by  fashion. 

HOUSEHOLD  APPLIANCES  III. 

Aim,. 

The  chief  aim  is  to  make  girls  familiar  with  the  equip- 
ment of  a  modern  home  b}^  actual  study  of  such  equipment. 
This  cannot  be  done  from  books  but  must  be  accomplished 
by  means  of  personal  investigation  and  detailed  examina- 
tion of  the  utensils,  machines  and  devices  which  the  home- 
keeper  is  constantly  making  use  of. 

A  secondary  aim,  but  an  important  one,  is  to  furnish 
concrete  experience  with  applied  science,  heat,  electricity, 
sound,  light,  chemistry,  bacteriology,  etc.,  thereby  laying 
a  real  foundation  for  science.  The  science,  however,  must 
grow  out  of  a  familiarity  with  the  device  through  which 
it  is  applied,  e.  g.,  the  S  trap  in  the  sink  drain  is  studied 
for  the  sake  of  what  it  accomplishes  in  a  hygienic  way.  It 
is  undesirable  to  study  the  scientific  principles  of  a  lab- 
oratory device  which  has  no  useful  connection  with  any- 
thing. "We  really  retain  only  the  knowledge  we  apply." 

Standards. 

There  should  be  the  equivalent  of  one  well-planned,  pur- 
poseful excursion  each  week  to  see  various  forms  of  house- 
hold equipment  and  appliances  either  in  actual  use  or  in 
salesrooms,  shops  or  factories  where  the  parts  can  be  seen 
and  the  plan  of  construction  understood.  This  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  course  because  it  is  the  center  around 
which  the  recitation  is  planned  as  well  as  the  source  of 
information  upon  which  the  conclusion  of  the  lesson  de- 
pends. 


184 

Pictures  of  a  furnace  or  pump  or  stove  cannot  be  sub- 
stituted for  personal  investigation  of  a  real  furnace,  pump 
or  stove. 

Pupils  are  required  to  keep  a  neat,  orderly,  condensed 
notebook  in  which  are  to  be  recorded  the  facts  the  pupil  has 
gathered  from  these  excursions  and  not  the  second-hand 
information  the  teacher  has  delivered  in  lecture  form. 

Each  of  the  nine  classes  of  topics  given  in  Institute  Cir- 
cular No  5,  Series  1914-15,  pages  3  and  4,  must  be  studied 
according  to  the  general  plan  outlined  for  classes  A,  B,  D 
and  F  in  Circulars  Nos.  5,  17,  and  18,  Series  1914-15. 

A  textbook  in  household  physics,  so  called,  cannot  be  sub- 
stituted for  this  course  in  household  appliances.  It  must  be 
a  course  based  on  investigations  through  excursions  and 
the  teacher  must  so  plan  and  conduct  the  course. 

Suggestions. 

See  Institute  Circulars  Nos.  5,  17  and  18. 

This  course  must  not  spread  itself  over  the  formal  side 
of  chemistry,  physics,  bacteriology,  zoology,  and  the  like, 
but  must  stick  to  its  text  which  is  household  appliances, 
i.  e.,  the  tools,  equipment,  devices,  apparatus,  etc.,  of  a  mod- 
ern, comfortable  home. 

Bibliography. 

The  circulars  above  named  and  a  variety  of  books  on 
elementary  science,  catalogs  of  household  equipment,  etc. 

NURSING  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  VI. 

The  Aim. 

This  course  is  designed  to  prepare  the  home-maker  for 
intelligently  meeting  the  emergencies  which  are  likely  to 
arise  in  the  home  (first  aid),  to  care  for  sick  and  convales- 
cent members  of  the  family  when  a  professional  nurse  is 


185 

either  unnecessary  or  unprocurable  and  what  is  equally  im- 
portant to  provide  living  conditions  such  that  good  health 
may  be  promoted.  This  last  implies  good  air,  good  water, 
simple,  wholesome  food,  clean  surroundings,  suitable  cloth- 
ing, good  personal  habits,  proper  exercises,  reasonable  rec- 
reation, etc. 

As  a  secondary  aim,  it  has  for  its  object  a  reasonable 
familiarity  with  the  parts  and  function  of  the  human  body, 
that  is,  as  a  result  of  the  study  of  what  to  do  in  a  drowning 
accident  plus  a  study  of  the  need  of  good  air  and  hence 
good  ventilation  under  normal  conditions,  the  pupil  must 
be  led  to  know  the  general  function  of  lungs  and  air  pas- 
sages and  finally  the  general  anatomy  of  the  respiratory 
system. 

The  pedagogical  order  here  is  pathology,  physiology, 
anatomy  and  to  reverse  this  is  to  teach  a  formal  science  be- 
fore the  pupil  knows  its  applied  side. 

"  Contrary  to  common  educational  theory  and  practice, 
the  practical  technological  side  of  science  should  precede  its 
purer  forms." — G.  Stanley  Hall. 

Standards. 

The  four  major  divisions  of  this  course  are  respiration, 
circulation,  nutrition  and  nerve  transmission.  Circular  No. 
94,  Nursing  and  Physiology,  Part  I,  gives  a  practical  work- 
ing plan  for  the  division,  respiration.  Other  circulars  will 
be  issued  covering  at  least  circulation  and  nutrition.  Cir- 
cular No.  59,  Feeding  the  Sick,  is  planned  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  the  nutrition  so  far  as  this  year's  work  in 
nursing  is  concerned,  and  Circular  No.  74,  Feeding  the 
Well,  although  written  to  help  in  presenting  the  course  in 
dietetics  which  is  a  subordinate  part  of  the  household  man- 
agement course,  may  also  be  used  in  a  general  way  when 
the  physiology  of  nutrition  is  being  considered  in  its  rela- 
tion to  health  and  disease. 


186 


Requirements. 


There  must  be  at  least  the  following  experiments  in  Cir- 
cular No.  59  carried  out  by  the  pupils  and  concisely  written 
up  in  a  permanent  notebook  used  only  for  this  course, 
Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  and  7.  The  second  series,  Nos.  8,  9,  10 
and  11,  must  also  be  carried  out  fully  in  the  laboratory. 

The  class  project  on  page  9  should  be  worked  out  and  the 
results  properly  displayed  in  suitable  bottles  properly 
marked. 

Two  class  projects  given  as  experiments  12,  13  and  14 
must  be.  worked  out  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  for  milk. 

The  experiments  on  eggs,  Nos.  15,  16  and  17,  are  required 
to  be  performed  and  written  up. 

The  digestion  experiments,  18  to  26,  may  be  divided  into 
two  or  three  groups  and  assigned  to  different  divisions  of 
the  class,  each  carrying  out  their  own  assignment  and  re- 
porting on  it  with  suitable  demonstration  so  that  the  other 
members  of  the  class  will  get  the  result  of  the  work  of  each 
division. 

This  laboratory  work  is  not  of  secondary  importance. 
It  is  fundamental  and  must  be  given  its  necessary  amount 
of  time.  It  is  infinitely  more  important  than  cataloguing 
the  bones  of  the  skeleton  or  memorizing  the  names  of  the 
tissues  and  glands. 

There  must  be  systematic  development  of  chest  and  ab- 
dominal breathing  and  records  of  chest  expansion  and  its 
development  for  each  pupil. 

In  conformity  to  plans  suggested  in  Circular  No.  95, 
each  pupil  must  be  taught  by  practice  to  perform  the 
manipulations  essential  to  resuscitation  in  drowning  acci- 
dents and  must  be  taught  the  method  of  determining  pulse 
beat,  temperature,  breathing  sounds  and,  so  far  as  possible 
in  a  general  way,  to  interpret  the  meaning  of  these  observa- 
tions and  determinations. 

Each  class  must  investigate  and  be  able  to  explain  the 
New  Hampshire  laws  relative  to  contagious  diseases  and 


187 

must  know  the  powers  and  duties  of  local  and  state  health 
officers. 

The  meaning  of  quarantine  laws,  so  far  as  the  home  and 
school  are  concerned,  must  be  well  known.  The  class  should 
write  to  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  for  such 
information  as  it  needs  and  cannot  get  locally. 

Every  teacher  must  have  on  her  desk  a  copy  of  the  laws, 
rules  and  regulations  of  the  state  on  matters  of  disease, 
hygiene,  etc. 

SCHOOLROOM  VENTILATION  AND  TEMPERATURE. 

There  must  be  a  record  of  the  classroom  temperature  for 
the  domestic  arts  classroom,  at  least,  and  it  ought  to  be  made 
the  business  of  the  domestic  arts  department  to  have  gen- 
eral oversight  of  the  heating,  light,  and  ventilation  of  the 
school  building  in  which  the  work  is  carried  on. 

Teachers  are  required  to  have  on  their  desks  and  to 
make  constant  use  of  circulars  of  the  state  department  and 
in  particular  to  base  their  work  in  this  course  on  Circular 
No.  94  and  subsequent  related  circulars. 

Notebooks  sufficient  to  enable  the  inspector  to  know 
whether  or  not  this  work  is  thus  carried  on  must  be  kept 
by  the  pupils  and  must  be  up  to  date  and  in  the  schoolroom 
daily. 

Suggestions. 

This  is  a  laboratory  and  investigation  course.  The 
teacher  must  plan  her  lessons  to  conform  to  the  outline 
here  given  and  must  know  where  pupils  may  readily  find 
the  needed  material  and  references  for  a  proper  study  of 
the  topics  assigned. 

Bibliography. 

New  Hampshire  State  Department  Circulars. 

State  Laws,  State  Board  of  Health  Bulletins  relative 
to  sanitation,  hygiene,  contagious  diseases,  etc., — State 
Board  of  Health,  Concord. 


188 

Pure  Food  Laws,  etc., — State  Board  of  Health,  Con- 
cord. 

Contagious  Diseases  of  Domesticated  Animals,— Com- 
missioner of  Agriculture.  • 

Pure  Food  Laws  and  Regulations  of  the  United  States, 
—Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington. 

First  Aid  (Red  Cross  booklet). 

Civics  and  Health, — Allen. 

A  Variety  of  Texts  on  Physiology  and  Hygiene. 

HOUSEHOLD  ORGANIZATION  V. 

The  Aim. 

The  course  in  household  organization  may  be  either  a 
semester  course  or  a  course  covering  an  entire  year  accord- 
ing as  the  program  for  any  given  school  is  approved.  The 
same  general  plan  will  answer  for  either  case,  however. 
The  household  organization  course  is  the  first  of  two  gen- 
eral courses  having  in  view  the  problems  that  would  con- 
front a  young  home-maker  about  to  enter  upon  her  duties. 
It  involves  first,  getting  the  home  organized  and  in  shape 
to  be  run.  The  second  course,  that  of  household  manage- 
ment, deals  with  actually  running  the  home  after  it  is 
organized. 

There  is  abundant  material  for  a  full  year  of  very  prof- 
itable work  in  this*  course  if  the  teacher  breaks  loose  from 
texts  and  follows  the  course  which  the  instinctive  nest- 
building,  home-planning  tendency  dictates. 

PLAN   OF    HOUSE. 

Standards. 

Each  pupil  must  either  (a)  make  plans  and  proper 
estimate  of  cost  for  remodelling  an  existing  house,  for 
instance  her  own  home,  or  (b)  make  plans  for  a  new, 
modest,  comparatively  inexpensive  house,  such  as  she 
might  like  to  live  in  but  one  which  an  income  of  $1200  a 
year  could  be  reasonably  expected  to  maintain. 


189 

Such  plan  must  include  a  lot  of  land  sufficient  in  size  to 
afford  room  for  a  garden  50  feet  by  100  feet,  or  larger. 
These  plans  are  to  be  pencil  drawings  drawn  to  one- 
fourth-inch  scale,  giving  basement  and  floor  plans,  together 
with  a  plan  of  the  lot  with  house,  garden,  lawn,  shrubs  and 
trees  located,  this  plan  being  an  one-eighth-inch  or  one- 
sixteenth-inch  scale  as  seems  best. 

From  this  point  on  the  method  of  procedure  will  be  sub- 
stantially the  same  under  both  plans.  After  a  proper 
arrangement  of  rooms  is  decided  upon,  the  problem  of 
painting  or  staining  the  woodwork,  tinting  or  papering 
the  walls  is  first  to  be  solved.  The  whole  plan  should  be 
treated  from  a  simple,  artistic  point  of  view  with  due  re- 
gard to  moderate  expense. 

EQUIPMENT. 

Here  is  a  chance  to  apply  in  a  definite  case  the  knowl- 
edge of  household  equipment  and  appliances  derived  from 
the  sophomore  year  course.  It  involves  the  problem  of 
heating  apparatus,  kitchen  equipment,  bathroom  fixtures, 
laundry  arrangements,  and  the  general  furniture  and  fur- 
nishings of  the  entire  house,  having  in  mind  the  general 
decorations  worked  out  for  the  various  rooms. 

GARDEN    AND    GROUNDS. 

The  modern  home  should  have  proper  surroundings. 
There  should  be  a  sizable  garden  including  vegetables, 
fruit  trees,  small  fruits,  a  moderate  amount  of  shrubbery 
and  flowers.  The  planning  of  the  garden  should  become 
an  actual  home  project  in  gardening  so  that  each  domestic 
arts  girl  taking  this  course  will  actually  plan,  plant  and 
care  for  a  home  garden. 

The  order  in  which  this  work  is  taken  up  should  con- 
form to  the  seasons.  Heating  is  a  fall  subject,  gardening 
a  spring  subject.  The  other  factors  in  the  course  may  be 
taken  up  at  almost  any  season  of  the  year. 


190 

There  must  be  an  itemized  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the 
furnishings  and  equipment,  the  data  being  derived  from 
actual  selection  of  as  much  of  this  as  possible  from  local 
stores  or  from  catalogues  of  metropolitan  department 
stores,  etc. 

Each  pupil  must  plan  the  details  of  a  kitchen  garden 
suited  to  the  situation,  and  must  decide  upon  the  ornamen- 
tal shrubs,  trees  and  flowers  that  are  to  be  used  for  beau- 
tifying the  lawn. 

LAUNDRY. 

In  these  courses,  the  cleansing  of  garments  and  house- 
hold textiles  is  not  to  be  taught  as  a  half-semester  course 
in  theory  but  by  practice  and  instruction  throughout  the 
six  years.  In  the  first  two  years,  this  will  be  connected 
with  the  making  and  remodeling  of  garments  and  with 
the  linen  of  the  dining  room.  In  the  third  year,  in  the 
household  appliances,  the  machinery  of  the  laundry  will 
be  used  and  studied.  In  the  fourth  year,  in  the  subject 
of  nursing  and  physiology,  and  in  the  last  two  years  the 
courses  in  household  organization  and  household  manage- 
ment give  full  opportunity  for  the  practical  study  of  all 
kinds  of  laundry  operations. 

Suggestions. 

The  general  plan  contemplates  getting  the  home  in  shape 
to  be  run.  That  is,  in  planning  the  house,  whether  remod- 
eled or  built  new,  equipping  it  suitably  and  preparing  it 
for  occupancy.  It  must  be  a  home  such  that  the  income 
that  will  be  assumed  in  the  home-management  class  later 
on  will  be  adequate  for  support  and  maintenance. 

The  teacher  may  derive  the  right  point  of  view  by  think- 
ing of  the  merchant  who  is  about  to  start  a  new  business. 
He  first  decides  upon  a  location.  He  either  takes  an  ex- 
isting building  and  remodels  it  or  builds  a  new  store.  He 
next  selects  the  fixtures  for  the  store  and  installs  them. 


191 

He  then  buys  a  stock  of  goods  and  displays  them  on  his 
shelves  and  in  his  windows.  All  this  is  done  before  the 
time  of  opening  his  store  to  the  public.  This  is  his  store 
organization.  After  this  comes  the  business  of  managing 
his  store.  The  same  general  idea  carried  into  the  organiza- 
tion and  management  of  the  home  is  what  we  have  in  mind 
in  the  two  courses,  household  organization  and  household 
management. 

-. 
Bibliography. 

See  Household  Management  VI. 

HOUSEHOLD   MANAGEMENT  VI. 

Aim. 

The  course  in  household  management  may  be  either  a 
semester  course  or  a  course  covering  an  entire  year  accord- 
ing as  the  program  for  any  given  school  is  approved.  The 
household  management  course  takes  up  the  work  where  the 
household  organization  ends  and  involves  the  idea  of  ac- 
tually managing  a  home. 

Each  member  of  the  class  should  endeavor  to  put  her- 
self into  the  position  of  that  confronting  the  average  young 
housekeeper  after  she  has  selected  and  equipped  her  house. 
It  should  be  based  upon  the  very  same  idea  that  this  girl 
had  in  mind  when  working  out  her  particular  project  in 
household  organization.  It  should  have  for  its  basis  a 
reasonable  assumption  as  to  income,  this,  of  course,  result- 
ing in  an  intelligently  worked-out  budget,  apportioning 
this  salary  to  the  usual  recognized  divisions  of  household 
management. 

The  teacher  must  endeavor  to  secure  such  an  interest  in 
this  project  that  the  pupil  will  plan  as  seriously  and  enter 
into  details  as  clearly  as  would  be  the  case  if  she  were  ac- 
tually planning  and  budgeting  for  real  home-keeping. 
This  is  not  a  difficult  task  if  the  problem  is  earnestly  and 
seriously  presented  from  a  practical  point  of  view. 


192 


Standards. 


Each  pupil  must  prepare  for  herself  a  budget  based  on 
assumed  incomes  of  $1000,  $1200,  and  $1500  respectively. 

This  budget  should  not  be  conventional  class  work 
and  each  pupil  should  not  arrive  at  the  same 
identical  conclusion,  nor  should  this  conclusion  come 
from  a  textbook  published  when  prices  were  fifty 
per  cent,  lower  than  at  present.  It  should  be  'the  re- 
sult of  each  pupil's  personal  study  of  her  own  assumed 
problem  and  must  be  based  on  prices  that  are  up  to  the 
minute.  The  teacher  and  class  will  decide  upon  general 
divisions  for  the  budget  but  details  are  for  each  pupil  to 
work  out  according  to  her  own  home  experience,  taste,  and 
good  sense. 

To  prevail  upon  the  girl  who  loves  a  horse  better  than 
she  does  an  automobile  to  figure  up-keep,  gas  bills,  and 
insurance  on  a  motor  car  when  she  ought  to  be  figuring 
on  hay,  oats,  and  curry  combs,  is  to  attempt  the  impossible. 
It  is  part  of  the  fatally  formalistic  fallacy  of  schools 
which,  after  the  manner  of  a  clothespin  manufactory,  at- 
tempt to  turn  their  product  out  all  of  one  size  and  form. 
It  can  be  done  with  birch  clothespin  wood.  It  can't  be 
done  with  human  beings. 

The  annual  income  should  not  only  be  divided  to  pro- 
vide for  food,  fuel,  clothing,  education,  amusement,  im- 
provement, etc.,  etc.,  but  each  of  these  sums  of  money 
should  be  entered  as  the  working  capital  of  an  equal  num- 
ber of  accounts  kept  in  the  ledger  or  in  a  card  system  de- 
vised to  be  simple  and  at  the  same  time  comprehensive 
enough  to  give  the  main  items  of  expense  connected  with 
managing  a  home.  In  many  respects,  a  simple  card  sys- 
tem is  more  desirable  for  this  work  than  the  ledger.  The 
cards  should  be  so  ruled  as  to  give  debit  and  credit  col- 
umns, with  a  third  column  to  show  the  available  balance 
at  any  given  time.  Budgeting  may  be  taken  up  first  and 
completed  on  the  basis  of  such  information  as  pupils  can 
gather  or  it  may  be  developed  more  slowly,  the  major 


193 


items  being  first  determined,  leaving  a  portion  of  the  in- 
come undistributed  for  the  later  items  as  they  arise.  Either 
method  will  work  out  satisfactorily. 

Each  pupil  must  budget  the  assumed  income  and  start 
some  form  of  household  accounting  simple  enough  to  be 
easily  kept  but  comprehensive  enough  to  show  in  the  end 
how  her  proposed  outlay  in  each  division  corresponds  with 
the  amount  set  aside  for  the  division. 

Ruled  notebooks,  or  a  card  ledger,  may  be  used,  but 
whatever  the  system  it  should  show  at  any  time  just  how 
expenses  are  totaling  and  what  balance  is  left. 


FOOD. 


SAMPLE    OP    CARD    RULING. 
Dr.  Cr. 


Date. 

Apportionment. 

Paid  Material. 

Groceries. 

Meat,  Milk 
and  Fish. 

Total. 

Bal. 

Sept.  1 

$200.00 

Flour,  $10.00.. 

$4.75 

$14.75 

$185.25 

There  should  be  a  summary  card  for  each  item  appor- 
tioned in  the  budget,  and  there  may  be  cards  under  each 
of  these  on  which  the  details  of  transactions  are  recorded. 
Each  pupil  at  the  end  of  the  year  must  have  a  complete 
set  of  accounts  showing  just  what  has  become  of  every 
dollar  originally  budgeted.  It  will  be  found  possible  to 
work  this  by  weeks,  or  months,  probably  the  latter. 

Food,  clothing,  interest,  taxes  and  repairs,  fuel,  educa- 
tion, charity,  etc.,  are  among  the  important  divisions  of 
the  budget. 

Each  pupil  must  present  a  summary  of  the  estimated 
yearly  quantity  of  food  required  per  family  or  per  person, 
i.  e.,  flour,  meat,  milk,  sugar,  fruit,  etc. 

Each  pupil  must  similarly  estimate  the  amount  of  fuel, 
the  cost  of  clothing,  kind  and  cost  of  papers,  magazines, 
books,  or  music,  etc.,  to  be  bought. 

13 


194 

FOOD. 

One  of  the  important  subjects  to  be  studied  is  food 
materials  and  foods.  What  was  taught  as  reliable  dietetic 
information  ten  years  ago  is,  in  the  light  of  recent  inves- 
tigation, inaccurate  and  of  small  value. 

Undoubtedly  there  will  be  a  science  of  dietetics  some 
day  which  will  compare  favorably  with  the  science  of 
medicine,  but  at  present  feeding  the  human  race  is,  at 
best,  an  experimental  art,  and  at  worst,  it  is  just  eating 
three  times  a  day.  (See  Circular  No  59,  Series  1915-16, 
pp.  1-3.  Also  Circular  No.  74,  pp.  1-3,  etc.) 

The  actual  problems  of  the  home  in  buying  and  cook- 
ing food,  in  producing  as  much  as  possible  in  the  garden, 
and  in  combining  such  foods  into  well-planned  menus  giving 
variety  and  a  sufficient  quantity,  are  the  ones  the  high 
school  senior  should  study. 

There  is  no  demand  for  anything  more  than  an  occa- 
sional lesson  in  cooking.  Every  menu  plan,  however,  as  a 
part  of  the  proposed  home-making,  must  be  based  on 
present-day  prices,  must  be  economically  planned,  and 
must  be  seasonable  and  reasonable. 

Study  the  markets  weekly.  See  what  is  most  economical 
at  the  time,  and  for  this  purpose  let  the  food  study  cover 
the  whole  year,  but  it  must  receive  only  one  period  per 
week  of  school  time. 

MILLINERY. 

It  is  not  desirable  that  millinery  be  regarded  as  a 
subject  separate  in  itself  and  with  a  distinct  place  in  the 
program  for  formal  approach,  study  and  conclusive  de- 
ductions. This  would  be  possible  only  if  hats  were  as 
changeless  in  style  as  fractions  and  irregular  verbs.  In 
the  sewing  classes,  when  the  spring  hat  season  approaches 
is  the  time  for  an  intensive  week  for  retrimming  of  actual 
hats  which  must  be  worn  for  the  season.  Old  hats  and  the 
material  and  trimming  for  new  ones  should  be  brought  to 
the  classroom  for  purposeful  work.  This  study  may  be 


195 

repeated  in  the  fall.  In  the  two  following  years,  the 
teacher  at  the  proper  season  should  aid  by  advice  and  di- 
rection and  may  devote  a  part  of  a  single  day  to  class 
assistance  and  instruction. 

In  Years  V  and  VI,  a  more  formal  course  may  be 
given,  with  a  careful  study  of  fitting  colors,  and  appropri- 
ate forms  and  economical  arrangement.  The  work  may 
be  made  an  integral  part  of  the  course  in  household  or- 
ganization and  household  management  but  in  either  year 
not  more  than  three  weeks  of  time  should  be  given. 

Suggestions. 

Circular  No.  74  must  be  made  use  of  in  determining  the 
food  requirement  of  the  home.  A  subsequent  circular  will 
be  issued  covering  clothing,  education,  amusement,  vaca- 
tion expenses,  fuel,  etc. 

This  course,  if  properly  appreciated  by  the  teacher,  can- 
not fail  to  give  to  the  senior  high  school  girl  a  point  of 
view  towards  the  whole  art  of  making  and  managing  a 
home,  which  will  not  only  make  the  course  interesting,  but 
will  develop  an  attitude  of  mind  favorable  to  her  later 
success  as  the  head  of  a  home.  If  it  does  this  it  will  do 
more  for  the  future  welfare  of  the  world  than  any  other 
course  within  the  range  of  a  girl's  education. 

Teachers  should  encourage  pupils  to  get  their  data  first 
hand  from  parents,  merchants,  manufacturers,  managers 
of  public  institutions,  etc. ;  in  fact,  from  every  available 
source  where  knowledge  exists  relative  to  any  item  of  ad- 
ministration entering  into  home-making. 

Bibliography. 

It  seems  unwise  to  list  here  texts  for  household  organ- 
ization and  household  management.  No  single  textbook 
should  be  used,  for  these  are  not  recitation  courses.  Most 
publishers  have  books  that  deal  with  varying  phases  of 
these  subjects  and  a  library  of  these  should  be  in  the 
school  and  constantly  used  for  information  and  for  com- 


196 

parison.  In  addition,  the  household  papers  and  magazines 
furnish  timely  discussions  of  the  organization  and  man- 
agement of  the  home  and  should  be  studied  with  discrimi- 
nation. 

General  Reference  Books: 

Canning,  Preserving  and  Jelly  Making.      Hill.  Little  Brown  &  Co. 

The    Business   of   Housekeeping Taber.  Lippincott. 

Canning    and    Preserving Powell.  Lippincott. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
COMMERCE. 

Any  commercial  curriculum  designed  to  satisfy  the 
popular  demand  for  commercial  education  and  to  meet  the 
immediate  need  of  pupils  must  of  necessity  be  not  only 
vocational  but  of  a  somewhat  narrow  ''trade-school"  type. 
This  is  unfortunate  because  at  the  age  when  secondary 
school  pupils  decide  upon  their  high  school  curricula  they 
are  neither  themselves  qualified  to  choose  wisely  nor  is  any 
parent  or  teacher  able  to  determine  what  aptitudes  will 
unfold  during  the  next  four  years  or  what  circumstances 
will  develop  in  the  pupil's  surroundings  which  will  make 
any  particular  vocation  desirable  or  satisfactory.  Neverthe- 
less, the  attraction  of  the  office  and  store  and  the  immediate, 
even  if  meagre,  cash  returns,  together  with  the  appearance 
of  gentility  when  contrasted  with  really  productive  work  in 
the  shop  or  on  the  farm  or  in  the  household,  have  created 
an  abnormal  demand  for  this  type  of  education  and.  while 
it  is  unquestionably  true  that  today  there  are  in  New 
Hampshire  at  least  three  times  as  many  high  school  pupils 
enrolled  in  commercial  courses  as  can  hope  to  find  satis- 
factory and  profitable  employment,  many  school  authorities 
have  thought  it  necessary  to  ignore  the  most  elementary 
truths  of  pedagogy  and  provide  for  this  real,  even  if  un- 
wise, demand. 


197 

If  village  high  schools  and  those  so  located  that  their 
graduates  cannot  find  clerical  employment  must  offer 
"trade"  courses  along  commercial  lines,  the  curriculum 
should  be  made  sufficiently  broad  to  provide  a  fair  educa- 
tion for  the  two  out  of  three  who  will  not  make  use  of  their 
commercial  training  other  than  temporarily. 

Ninety  girls  out  of  every  one  hundred  actually  do  be- 
come home  makers.  It  is  logical,  therefore,  to  provide 
ways  in  which  the  largest  possible  number  may  receive 
systematic  domestic  arts  training.  For  this  reason  alone 
all  commercial  courses  for  girls  ought  to  provide  as  a  con- 
comitant to  the  commercial  subjects  the  regular  home  mak- 
ing subjects  of  the  domestic  arts  curriculum. 

If  this  is  objected  to  on  the  ground  that  we  are  thus 
bringing  together  two  vocational  courses,  the  answer  is 
that  while  a  domestic  arts  course  is  in  fact  a  vocational 
course,  it  is  unique  in  that  what  is  a  vocation  to  the  home 
maker  is  also  broadly  and  generally  developmental  in  its 
relation  to  the  origin  and  evolution  of  the  modern  home 
and  hence  is  in  all  respects  as  much  a  classic  with  respect 
to  that  greatest  of  all  human  institutions,  the  home,  as  are 
the  ancient  languages  to  modern  literature  or  the  discov- 
eries of  Newton  and  Archimedes  to  modern  science.  Conse- 
quently, a  well  organized  domestic  arts  curriculum  is  both 
a  practical  and  a  liberal  arts  curriculum. 

Aims. 

1.  A  commercial  curriculum  must  teach  the  language 
of  the  world   of  commercial   activities.       Therefore,   the 
curriculum  includes  that  special  form  of  written  language, 
stenography. 

2.  It  must  develop  the  technique  of  the  commercial  arts 
such  as  the  use  of  the  typewriter,  adding-machine,  dupli- 
cator and  the  other  machines  and  appliances  of  the  well 
equipped  office. 

3.  It    must    develop    familiarity    with    the    everyday 
methods  of  account  keeping  as  practiced  in  stores,  rail- 


198 

road  offices,  insurance  offices,  banks  and  municipal  depart- 
ments; methods  which,  make  use  of  modern  devices,  of 
multiple  column  ledgers  and  of  cards  and  loose-leaf  sys- 
tems, etc. 

4.  It  must  deal  with  methods   of  office   organization, 
such    as    filing,    cataloguing,    indexing,    follow-up    work, 
graphing,  etc. 

5.  In  addition  to  the  above,  there  must  be  real  live 
courses   designed   to   acquaint   the  pupil   with   the   great 
world  commerce ;  its  routes  of  travel  and  means  of  trans- 
portation and  communication;  its  ways  of  adjusting  debit 
and  credit.     This  requires  a  study  of  commercial  history, 
commercial    geography,    of    tariffs,    subsidies,    reciprocal 
trade  agreements,  of  capital  and  labor  and,  in  general  of 
as  many  as  possible  of  the  typical  relationships  of  individ- 
uals, corporations  and  nations  as  the  time  available  and 
the  qualifications  of  the  teacher  will  permit. 

6.  To  sum  up,  review,  and  test  the  whole,  there  should 
be  a  genuine  course  in  office  practice,  whereby  the  pupil 
may  acquire  through  experience  competency  for  effective 
work  in  a  permanent  office  position. 

7.  The  five  courses  which  follow  in  detail  are  the  ones 
named  in  the  recommended  curricula  of  this  program.     It 
is  believed  that  the  course  given  elsewhere  under  the  name 
Economics  and  Business  Practices,  even  for  pupils  in  the 
commerce  curriculum,  is  of  more  value  than  the  traditional 
textbook  course  in  commercial  law.     Schools  which  prefer 
the  older  course  in   commercial  geography  and   political 
economy  and  in  commercial  law  will  find  them  outlined  in 
the  program  of  1912. 

Standards. 

TYPEWRITING. 

At  the  end  of  one  full  year's  work,  that  is,  at  the  end 
of  the  first  semester  of  Year  IV,  a  speed  of  twenty  words 
per  minute  after  deducting  one-half  point  for  each  error. 


199 

At  the  end  of  the  second  full  year's  work,  that  is,  at  the 
end  of  the  first  semester  of  Year  V  and  thereafter,  a  speed 
of  30  words  a  minute  after  deducting  one  point  for  each 
error. 

STENOGRAPHY. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  full  year,  that  is,  at  the  end  of 
Year  IV,  sixty  words  per  minute  after  deducting  one  point 
for  each  error. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  year,  that  is,  at  the  end  of  Year 
V  and  thereafter,  a  speed  of  100  words  per  minute  after 
deducting  two  points  for  each  error. 

Definite  standards  for  commercial  courses,  together  with 
tests  of  determination  and  suggestions  on  classroom  pro- 
cedure, are  given  in  Circular  No.  93.  This  circular  should 
be  on  the  desk  of  every  teacher  of  commerce  courses. 

Suggestions. 

BOOKKEEPING,  ARITHMETIC  AND  TYPEWRITING  III. 

There  are  two  elements  in  this  year's  work,  bookkeeping 
and  arithmetic  with  detailed  recitations,  and  typewriting 
with  single  periods  for  three  days  in  the  week. 

Bookkeeping  will  in  most  cases  need  to  be  based  upon 
one  of  the  texts  or  bookkeeping  systems  common  in  our 
schoolrooms  but  it  is  highly  essential  that  the  course  should 
be  broader  and  more  modern  than  any  textbook.  Both 
teacher  and  class  should  actually  be  familiar  with  the 
methods  of  bookkeeping  used  in  the  stores,  factories  and 
offices  of  the  community.  There  should  be  much  study  of 
commercial  paper  of  all  kinds  and  of  the  practices  which 
prevail  daily  in  business  operations. 

Inspectors  will  be  required  to  determine  that  classes 
know  the  methods  of  accounting  employed  by  local  busi- 
ness men. 

The  arithmetic  should  not  be  studied  as  a  thing  apart 
but  as  a  tool  to  be  kept  sharp  for  constant  use  in  the  solu- 


200 

tion  of  the  problems  which  arise  in  the  recording  of  busi- 
ness accounts,  that  is,  in  bookkeeping.  Textbooks  should  be 
in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  for  reference,  for  review  and  for 
advanced  study,  and  much  class  time  should  be  devoted 
to  instruction,  to  practice  and  to  drill,  but  the  study  and 
the  instruction  should  be  upon  the  principles  needed  for 
the  solution  of  the  business  problems  of  the  bookkeeping 
lesson.  The  practice  should  be  upon  forgotten  mathemat- 
ical processes  which  now  are  again  needed.  Drill  on  the 
essentials  should  be  constant  but  should  be  for  brief  daily 
periods  only. 

Teachers  have  long  thought  of  typewriting  as  necessarily 
associated  with,  stenography.  In  its  early  stages,  there 
is  no  connection  between  the  two  and  it  is  very  desirable 
that  all  pupils  should  early  be  acquainted  with  the  manipu- 
lation and  use  of  the  typewriter.  The  first  work  on  the 
typewriter  should  not  be  delayed  beyond  Year  III  and  for 
commercial  pupils  a  good  start  should  be  made  with  the 
typewriter  before  a  beginning  is  made  in  stenography. 
During  this  year,  there  should  be  an  intimate  connection 
between  the  work  in  typewriting  and  the  course  in  Eng- 
lish, since  in  the  composition  of  English  III  there  should 
be  much  instruction  and  practice  in  actual  letter  writing. 
After  what  little  preliminary  instruction  and  guidance  is 
needed,  the  beginner  should  secure  his  practice  in  the 
writing  of  actual  letters  and  so  provide  a  real  motive  for 
learning  the  typewriter.  The  standard  for  this  half-year 
is  ability  to  produce  without  difficulty  satisfactory  type- 
written letters. 

The  beginner  upon  the  typewriter  longs  for  accomplish- 
ment and  will  gain  rapidly  in  speed  and  accuracy  when  he 
knows  that  he  is  actually  producing  something  of  acknowl- 
edged use  and  value.  If  instead  he  is  obliged  to  spend 
hours  in  writing  and  rewriting  nonsensical  phrases  which 
work  out  some  one's  theory  of  the  logical  order  of  intro- 
ducing human  fingers  to  the  several  letters  of  the  key- 


201 

board,   interest  soon  dies  away   and  the  first  element   in 
effective  habit  formation  is  lost. 

From  the  first,  the  practice  upon  the  typewriter  is  to  be 
supervised  and  insistence  placed  upon  correct  habits  of 
manipulation. 

BOOKKEEPING.    ARITHMETIC,    STENOGRAPHY    AND    TYPE- 
WRITING IV. 

Through  this  year,  a  double  period  is  provided  for  work 
in  these  four  branches  of  commerce.  The  bookkeeping  and 
arithmetic  should  continue  as  in  Year  III  until  a  point  of 
mastery  is  reached. 

Until  the  middle  of  the  year  typewriting  will  have 
little  connection  with  stenography  but  should  develop 
as  an  art  in  itself.  In  any  office,  the  transcription  of  steno- 
graphic notes  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  regular  work  re- 
quired. Seldom,  if  ever,  should  pupils  be  required  to  copy 
legal  documents,  court  cases  and  other  stock  material.  In- 
stead, the  typewriting  should  produce  actual  forms  needed 
for  the  school  or  for  other  organizations.  Among  these 
should  be  real  programs  of  coming  social  events,  records, 
reports  and  class  lists  and  syllabi  for  the  teachers.  Every 
school  can  find  abundant  real  material  ready  at  hand  and 
teachers  should  list  the  products  of  the  typewriting  classes 
exactly  as  the  teachers  of  manual  training  list  the  pro- 
jects made  in  their  classes. 

The  work  in  stenography  is  the  most  important  part  of 
the  work  this  year.  It  is  to  be  emphasized  that  in  learn- 
ing stenography  the  pupils  are  acquiring  a  new  language 
and  the  pedagogy  is  that  common  in  language  instruction 
to  beginners.  The  teacher  of  stenography  should  study 
the  literature  which  deals  with  the  pedagogy  and  psychol- 
ogy of  teaching  reading  in  classes  of  beginners  and  should 
be  entirely  familiar  with  the  principles  of  habit  formation 
through  drill. 


202 

COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY    AND    HISTORY    IV. 

Rather  commonly  this  course  has  consisted  of  a  half-year 
of  recitation  from  a  textbook  in  commercial  geography,  fol- 
lowed by  a  similar  half-year  of  commercial  history,  and 
the  course  as  a  whole  has  had  little  real  value. 

The  subject  is  best  taught  when  there  is  a  maximum  of 
investigation  and  a  minimum  of  formal  recitation.  In 
general  not  over  30  per  cent,  of  the  total  time  involved 
should  be  given  to  recitation.  The  remainder  should  be 
devoted  (a)  to  local  investigation  of  industries  and  occu- 
pations, (b)  to  reference-book  study,  (c)  to  correspondence 
with  manufacturers,  importers,  United  States  Consuls, 
United  States  departments  in  Washington,  etc.  Each 
pupil  is  to  select,  work  up  and  prepare  a  paper  on  one  sub- 
ject from  each  of  the  following  classes : 

A.  Foods:     Cereal  crops,  vegetables,  fruit,  meat,  tea, 
coffee,  cocoa. 

B.  Clothing:    Cotton,  woolen,  flax  and  hemp,  silk. 

C.  Building  Materials:    Lumber,  stone,  brick,  lime  and 
cement,  iron  and  steel. 

D.  Transportation:    By  water,  rail,  auto  trucks. 

E.  Local  Industries:    Each  pupil  must  work  up  in  de- 
tail at  least  one  local  industry  and  must  prepare  a  paper 
covering  this  investigation. 

Many  schools  make  commercial  geography  and  commer- 
cial history  a  thing  of  life  by  collecting  information  from 
all  over  the  world.  It  is  especially  important  at  this  time 
to  keep  in  closest  touch  with  the  changed  and  changing 
commercial  relations  growing  out  of  the  new  place  the 
United  States  now  occupies  as  a  World  Power. 

This  subject  should  be  something  different  from  the  very 
excellent  work  that  has  long  been  done  in  grammar  schools. 
It  must  be  real  high  school  investigation  commensurate 
with  the  ability  of  the  high  school  pupil. 


203 

The  two  subjects  of  the  course  should  not  be  separate 
but  taught  as  one.  Each  pupil  will,  of  course,  have  a  text- 
book in  commercial  geography  and  one  in  commercial  his- 
tory but,  in  place  of  a  page  by  page  study  and  recitation, 
the  work  will  be  by  topics  similar  to  the  main  ones  given 
above  and  from  the  text  on  history  as  well  as  that  on  geog- 
raphy, information  will  be  sought. 

STENOGRAPHY  AND  TYPEWRITING,  SPELLING  AND  CORRESPOND- 
ENCE V. 

In  Year  IV,  by  much  practice,  the  technique  of  both 
typewriting  and  stenography  has  reached  a  reasonable  de- 
gree of  perfection.  During  this  year  it  is  necessary  to  in- 
crease the  speed  until  office  standards  are  reached.  In 
stenography,  this  should  be  accomplished  by  the  end  of  the 
year;  in  typewriting,  by  the  end  of  the  first  semester. 
For  the  remainder  of  Year  V  and  for  the  following  year, 
slight  attention  should  be  given  to  typewriting  as  a  process, 
but  the  typewriter  should  be  in  constant  use  as  a  means 
of  expression  and  record,  and  pupils  should  be  held  to 
standards  of  speed  and  accuracy.  This  may  be  done 
through  practice  in  business  correspondence. 

Commonly  in  commerce  curricula,  much  time  is  given 
in  the  first  year  of  the  program,  that  is,  in  Year  III,  to 
drill  in  penmanship  and  spelling.  It  is  proposed  here  that 
during  Years  III  and  IV  the  pupils  should  be  required  to 
write  legibly  and  to  spell  ordinary  words  correctly  but  that 
little -class  time  be  devoted  to  drill  upon  these  subjects. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  development  of  pupils  of 
the  average  age  of  those  enrolled  in  these  years  is  such 
that  attempts  at  drill,  review  and  organization  of  systems 
are  not  effective  and  the  results  are  not  permanent.  In 
Years  V  and  VI,  most  pupils  have  reached  a  period  of  per- 
manent adjustment.  These  are  the  first  years  since  the 
pupil  left  the  sixth  grade  when  formal  instruction  in  pen- 
manship and  spelling  can  be  made  worth  whole.  In  these 
years,  the  rules  of  spelling  may  be  taught  and  applied, 


204 

and  intensive  systematic  practice  in  penmanship  will  pro- 
duce results  much  as  it  does  with  somewhat  older  students 
in  private  commercial  schools.  For  Year  V,  the  program 
should  provide  double  periods  for  two  days  each  week. 

OFFICE  PRACTICE,   STENOGRAPHY   AND   TYPEWRITING  VI. 

It  has  been  completely  demonstrated  that  under  compe- 
tent teachers  the  standards  set  for  stenography  and  type- 
writing can  be  reached  at  the  end  of  two  full  years  of  high 
school  work.  Schools  which  find  they  are  not  accomplish- 
ing this  should  reorganize  their  commerce  courses  under 
capable  teachers. 

No  school  with  three  courses  devoted  mainly  to  formal 
instruction  in  either  of  these  two  subjects  will  be  approved. 
The  course  of  this  final  year  should  be  the  fruition  of  the 
curriculum.  The  office  practice  should  be  under  actual 
business  conditions  and  may  not  be  a  name  behind  which  is 
concealed  still  more  unmotivated  drill  on  keys,  forms  and 
outlines. 

A  stenographer  or  office  clerk  is  of  no  more  value  in  an 
office  than  a  neostyle  or  an  addressograph  or  any  other 
mechanical  machine,  unless  she  thinks.  A  large  number  of 
graduates  in  commerce  go  into  business  offices  and  are 
found  to  be  mechanical  machines  only.  Their  work  is  ab- 
solutely correct,  if  some  one  touches  the  right  keys  in  the 
right  order.  This  course  is  designed  to  remedy  such  a 
condition. 

Large  schools  should  provide  for  this  course  offices  with 
the  full  modern  equipment  of  a  business  office,  including 
the  usual  office  machinery,  office  appliances  and  office 
equipment.  In  addition,  these  schools  should  take  over  the 
actual  business  of  the  school  or  of  some  department  of  the 
city  or  town  and  in  performing  the  operations  should  be 
held  responsible  for  creditable  results. 

In  smaller  towns  where  there  are  fewer  opportunities  for 
this  office  practice,  there  are  still  abundant  opportunities  for 
actual  clerical  work  at  the  school  or  elsewhere,  in  homes, 


205 

offices  or  stores.  This  may  include  the  optional  or  regular 
transcription  of  letters  for  the  professional  or  semi-pro- 
fessional men  of  the  village,  the  keeping  of  records  for  so- 
cieties and  organizations,  the  balancing  of  accounts  at  the 
village  store  and  similar  work  which  a  live  teacher,  who 
knows  her  town,  will  be  able  to  find.  Inspectors  will  deter- 
mine that  wherever  this  course  is  given,  work  of  this  nature 
be  actually  done. 

Bibliography. 

Spelling  Efficiency :  Wallin. 
The  Teaching  of  Spelling:  Suzzallo. 
The  Teaching  of  Handwriting :  Freeman. 
Educative  Process:  Bagley,  pages  328  to  331,  Macmillan. 
Piano  Playing :  Hofmann,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
The  Teaching  Process :  Strayer,  pages  4-50,  Macmillan. 
The  Psychology  of  Learning:  Thorndike. 
The  Psychology  of  Skill :  Book. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology:  Pyle,  Vol.  V,  pages 
247-258. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

AGRICULTURE. 

In  the  elementary  program,  home  gardens,  with  school 
supervision  and  instruction,  are  emphasized  throughout 
the  six  years.  This  work  should  continue  in  the  high 
school  at  least  through  Years  I  to  IV.  During  these  years, 
gardens  are  included  among  the  B  Subjects.  If  the 
courses  outlined  for  the  elementary  school  have  been  well 
presented,  little  additional  instruction  should  be  needed 
from  high  school  teachers.  The  organization  of  the  school, 
however,  should  carry  forward  the  work  under  the  inter- 
ested supervision  of  the  teachers  and  with  constant  corre- 


206 

lation  with  the  school  work  in  other  subjects.  The  school 
fair  or  exhibit  of  productions  is  a  valuable  factor  in  the 
development  of  school  spirit  and  school  recognition. 

In  Part  II  of  this  program  on  page  48,  the  statement  is 
made  that  French  is  recommended  in  Years  I  and  II  for 
all  programs  of  approved  secondary  schools  but  it  may  be 
replaced  by  two  well-organized  courses  in  agriculture.  In 
many  rural  schools  this  is  necessary  and  probably  desira- 
ble. There  are  two  ways  of  meeting  this  proposal. 

1.  For  French  I  and  French  II,  there  may  be  substi- 
tuted Horticulture  and  Soil  Study  III  and  Wood  Work 
III,  as  these  courses  are  described  later  in  this  chapter. 
One  course  should  not  be  given  in  the  first  year  and  the 
other  in  the  second  but  the  horticulture  and  the  carpentry 
should  continue  together  throughout  both  years,  with  daily 
exercises.     This  course  in  horticulture  may  be  taken  by 
both  boys  and  girls  but  girls  may  replace  some  of  the  farm 
carpentry  by  additional  projects  in  dressmaking.     Pupils 
who  complete  the  above  subjects  will  be  prepared  for  ad- 
vanced work  as  they  come  to  Year  III. 

2.  Schools  may  present  a  program  for  Years  I  and  II 
which  in  each  year  provides  the  following  unit  courses: 

Concrete  Mathematics,  5       days  5  periods 

United  States  History,  5       days  5  periods 

Elementary  Science,  5       days  5  periods 

Manual  Training  or  Domestic  Science,  2%  days  5  periods 

Gardening,  2%  days  5  periods 

This  is  similar 'to  the  regular  program  proposed  on  page 
41,  except  that  elementary  science  is  increased  from  three 
to  five  days  a  week  and  the  full  outline  given  in  the  ele- 
mentary program  for  science  in  Years  VII  and  VIII  must 
be  covered.  In  addition  the  work  in  gardening  must  be 
entirely  definite  and  must  follow  the  outline  given  in  Cir- 
cular No.  94.  In  place  of  two  and  one-half  days  a  week 
given  to  each  subject,  the  work  should  be  distributed  to  fit 


207 

the  seasons  but  would  call  for  daily  exercises  in  one  or  the 
other  of  the  subjects. 

The  second  plan  is  not  as  economical  as  the  regular  one 
or  the  first  one  given  above,  and  should  not  have  general 
adoption.  The  other  plans  permit  entrance  to  Year  III 
with  advanced  standing  in  two  traditional  high  school  sub- 
jects, mathematics  and  either  French  or  agriculture.  This 
plan  permits  such  advanced  standing  only  in  mathematics. 

The  Federal  law  through  the  Smith-Hughes  fund  makes 
fundamental  requirements  as  given  below  and  allows 
schools  which  fulfill  the  requirements  to  be  reimbursed  in 
part  for  expense  incurred. 

(a)  Pupils  taking  subsidized  courses  must  be  fourteen 
years  old  or  over,  hence,   as  ages  average  in  the  public 
school,  must  be  at  least  in  the  ninth  grade. 

(b)  Schools  must  be  in  session  twenty-five  hours  per 
week,  which  is  interpreted  to  mean  five  full  hours  of  reci- 
tation, laboratory  or  field  work  per  day  for  five  days  in  the 
week. 

(c)  One-half  of  the  pupil's  time,  that  is,  twelve  and  one- 
half  hours  per  week,  must  be  devoted  to  agriculture  and 
related   subjects.      The   other   twelve   and   one-half  hours 
may  be  devoted  to  non-related  subjects  such  as  English, 
history,  mathematics,  science,  modern  languages,  etc. 

Schools  which  do  not  care  to  qualify  for  Smith-Hughes 
aid  may  present  an  agricultural  curriculum  which  fully 
meets  the  requirements  given  in  Chapter  I  of  Part  I  of 
this  program.  It  must  present  at  least  four  full  units  in 
agriculture  together  with  one  or  two  courses  in  farm  wood 
and  iron  work. 

The  Smith-Hughes  Act  is  distinctly  a  piece  of  vocational 
legislation,  designed  to  fit  young  men  for  life  on  a  farm  or 
for  further  education  in  agricultural  colleges.  This  does  not 
mean  a  narrow  or  a  one-sided  education,  for  the  law  allows, 
and  New  Hampshire  practice  requires,  that  approximately 
one-half  of  the  high  school  curriculum  in  agriculture  shall 
be  given  to  subjects  that  are  commonly  accepted  as  an  es- 


208 

sential  background  to  good  citizenship.  More  than  this, 
the  study  of  agriculture  itself,  its'  processes,  related  sci- 
ences and,  in  particular,  its  history  are  quite  as  " cultural' ' 
as  are  the  records  of  villainous  old  despots  who  have 
drenched  the  earth  with  blood  and  whose  doings  have  con- 
stituted a  considerable  part  of  the  Ancient  History  taught. 
Indeed,  the  history  of  civilization  is  more  accurately  read 
in  the  study  of  agricultural  development  than  in  any  other 
known  record.  The  courses  in  agriculture  take  the  pupil 
back  into  the  middle  period  of  barbarism  and  lead  him  on 
through  a  path  of  constructiveness  rather  than  destructive- 
ness  to  the  most  recent  time  and  culminate  with  the 
triumph  of  the  art  of  modern  agriculture  in  the  produc- 
tion of  food  sufficient  to  feed  the  world.  Agriculture  is 
preeminently  the  occupation  which  makes  for  peace  and 
develops  resourcefulness. 

A  systematic,  even  though  brief  and  incomplete,  story 
of  man's  accomplishment  in  the  field  of  agriculture  must 
result  in  a  more  liberal  attitude  of  mind  towards  present- 
day  industrial  problems  and  must  tend  to  develop  citizens 
capable  of  participation  in  their  solution. 

All  teachers  in  agriculture  and  all  teachers  responsible 
for  the  garden  work  of  Years  I-IV  should  study  with  care 
Circular  No.  94. 

HORTICULTURE  AND  SOIL  STUDY  III. 

Aim. 

This  course  aims  to  teach  the  practice  of  horticulture 
(see  definitions  on  page  1,  Institute  Circular,  Series  1915- 
16,  No  46).  The  soil  study  of  this  year  is  largely  prelim- 
inary and  more  or  less  incidental.  Gardening  is  the  chief 
business  of  the  year.  The  garden  must  be  in  size  worth 
while,  and  in  crops  be  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  locality. 
It  must  be  worked  out  in  plan  in  the  classroom  and  planted 
by  the  pupil  under  the  teacher's  supervision.  A  home 
project  worthy  of  recognition  must,  if  the  season  is  favor- 
able, yield  a  crop  value  of  at  least  seventy-five  dollars. 


Standards. 


209 


SIZE  OF  PROJECT. 


No  garden  less  than  seventy-five  by  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  (about  one-quarter  acre)  can  be  accepted  as  satisfac- 
tory. 

TIME   APPORTIONMENT. 


Classroom 
"Recitations." 

Laboratory  work 
preparatory  or 
supplementary 
to  field  work. 

Field  excursions, 
field  project  work 
and  outside 
investigation.  „ 

Fall  Term. 
Winter  Term. 
Spring  Term. 

Not  more  than  15%. 
75%. 
'  15%. 

Not  more  than  10%. 
Not  less  than  25%. 

Both  con 

857 

Not  less  than  75%. 

Included  in  labora- 
tory time, 
ibined, 

•)< 

Suggestions  and  Bibliography. 
See  under  next  course. 


WOOD  AND   IRON   WORK  III  AND   IV. 


Aim. 


To  give  boys  sufficient  experience  in  practical  work  in 
wood  and  iron  so  that  they  can  do  all  of  the  com- 
mon jobs  of  construction  and  repairs  occurring  on  the 
farm  in  the  ordinary  course  of  farm  administration. 

In  general,  this  consists  of  carpenter  work,  repairs  on 
farm  tools  and  machinery,  simple  forms  for  concrete  con- 
struction, cabinet  work  in  the  way  of  repairs  and  in  par- 
ticular, sufficient  blacksmithing  to  sharpen  and  re-set 
horse  shoes,  mend  chains,  sharpen  drills,  etc. 

The  old-time  farmer  knew  how  to  turn  his  hand  to  a 
multitude  of  constructive  processes  from  whittling  a  "bow 
pin"  to  adzing  an  ox  yoke.  The  old-time  farmer's  boy 
learned  to  do  these  things  under  his  father's  direction. 
These  experiences,  involving  simple  hand  tools  and  neces- 
sitating the  exercise  of  much  ingenuity  as  ways  and  means 


14 


210 

had  to  be  discovered  and  devised  to  meet  new  conditions, 
were  in  fact  the  most  effective  factors  in  the  education  of 
the  farm-reared  boy  of  a  century  ago  and  they  account 
for  the  acknowledged  capacity  of  the  great  industrial  pio- 
neers who  laid  the  foundations  for  our  national  success  in 
business  enterprises.  The  aim  of  the  school  should  be  to 
develop  similar  constructive  effectiveness  in  both  boys 
and  girls  of  the  present  day.  The  real  school  workshop 
where  useful  things  are  made  is  the  one  place  where  "in- 
ventiveness" and  the  power  to  solve  whatever  mechanical 
problem  arises  by  means  of  such  tools  and  materials  as  are 
available,  can  be  taught,  through  practice,  at  a  time  when 
pupils  are  receptive  to  such  instruction. 

Standards. 

Two  unit  courses  in  shop,  wood  and  iron  work  are  pro- 
posed, but  are  here  discussed  together  since  one  year 
should  not  be  given  to  wood  and  one  to  iron.  See  under 
suggestions. 

Standards  are  best  expressed  negatively  for  these 
courses.  These  courses  should  have  absolutely  no  trace  of 
either  the  "joints"  and  formal  "exercises"  of  the  obsolete 
Russian  manual  training  system  or  of  the  diminutive 
"models"  of  the  original  Sloyd  system. 

Again  pupils  should  not  build  so-called  model  farm 
buildings  to  a  scale  of  one-eighth  full  size.  Such  work  is 
manifestly  make-believe  and  belongs  to  the  realm  of  Gul- 
liver's Travels. 

On  the  positive  side  it  may  be  stated  that  no  work  should 
be  done  which  is  not  a  part  of  some  project  which  the  pupil 
knows  is  useful  and  which  he  knows  is  to  be  used  on  the 
farm,  in  the  home  or  in  and  about  the  school. 

There  is  no  education  in  merely  making  shavings  and 
sawdust  for  the  sake  of  getting  accustomed  to  the  use  of  a 
plane  or  saw.  There  is  education,  however,  in  getting  the 
"hang"  of  a  plane  or  saw  while  making  a  useful  thing 
that  the  pupil  knows  is  needed. 


211 


Suggestions. 

There  is  no  excuse  for  treating  wood  working  and  iron 
working  as  separate  courses  so  far  as  time  is  concerned. 
If  a  boy  needs  to  put  a  new  spoke  into  the  wheel  of  a 
decrepit  wheelbarrow  and  the  tire  needs  to  be  made  shorter 
and  re-set,  it  is  just  the  time  to  drop  the  spokeshave  and 
chisel  and  fire  up  the  forge.  If  he  has  made  a  new  wood 
for  a  whippletree  today,  then  tomorrow  is  his  day  for  put- 
ing  on  the  irons. 

Naturally  the  first  year's  work  lays  the  stress  on  wood- 
working while  the  second  year  gives  larger  emphasis  to  the 
iron  work. 

The  following,  projects  are  suggested  as  typical  of  many 
which  the  successful  teacher  by  personal  conferences  with 
pupils  and  parents  will  discern  to  be  actually  needed  at  the 
homes.  The  very  best  evidence  of  a  well-conducted  course 
is  the  fact  that  each  pupil  has  a  different  project 
meeting  the  peculiar  needs  at  his  home  and  the  worst  pos- 
sible condition  is  when  the  inspector  finds  each  pupil  work- 
ing on  a  predetermined  series  of  "models"  designed  to 
give  an  alleged  "sequence"  either  of  processes,  or  tools,  or 
both. 

WORK  IN  WOOD. 

Neck  yoke,  spreader,  evener,  whippletrees,  wagon  tongue, 
wagon  or  sleigh  shaft  or  cross  piece,  wagon  body,  cart  body, 
wheelbarrow,  smoothing  harrow  frame,  cultivator  frame, 
nest  boxes,  trap  nests,  dry-mash  hoppers,  brooders,  feed 
boxes,  drinking  fountains,  milking  stools,  axe  handle,  cant- 
hook  wood,  wagon  jack,  apple  heading  press,  apple  and 
potato  sorter,  bean  sorter,  school  exhibit  boxes,  seed  testing 
devices,  window  boxes,  cold  frame  or  hot  bed  accessories, 
flats  for  transplanting,  tomato  racks,  mosquito  screen 
frames,  book  racks,  tables,  bins,  and  an  interminable  line 
of  minor  repairs  at  home  and  in  the  school. 


212 

WORK   IN   IRON. 

Any  and  all  ironing  which  is  part  of  any  project  in 
woodwork.  In  addition,  heading  and  threading  bolts,  and 
tapping  nuts  for  special  uses,  mending  chains,  putting 
rings  and  hooks  on  chains,  recalking  horse  shoes,  welding 
broken  rods,  welding  iron  or  steel,  or  a  combination  of  the 
two,  sharpening  or  even  "new  steeling"  a  plow  coulter, 
making  a  grab-hook  for  a  chain,  making  bridle  chain  for 
a  sled  or  bridle  shoe  for  a  wagon,  forging  and  tempering 
cold  chisels,  punches,  stone  drills,  making  a  knife  blade, 
upsetting  an  axe,  drawing  out  smoothing  harrow  teeth,  etc. 

Quite  likely  it  will  prove  that  the  projects  omitted  from 
this  list  are  of  more  importance  than  those  given.  No 
school  will  follow  any  pre-arranged  list  item  by  item,  for 
farm  equipment  upkeep  follows  no  law  and  breakage  and 
new  needs  are  not  in  alphabetical  order. 

The  real  situation  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  (a) 
find  out  what  is  most  needed  on  the  farm  from  which  any 
pupil  comes,  (b)  together  with  the  pupil  and,  if  possible, 
the  parent  talk  over  the  best  way  of  supplying  the  need, 
and  (c)  go  directly  and  persistently  to  -the  task  of  doing 
the  job. 

In  terms  of  pedagogy,  a,  b,  and  c  are  the  impression,  or- 
ganization, and  expression  of  the  deformalized  formal 
steps  in  teaching.  (See  Appendix  B.) 

Bibliography  for  courses  in  Year  III. 

Pedagogical  Helps  and  Suggestions  as  to  Methods  for 
Courses  in  Year  III. 

Institute  Circular  School 

No.  Series      Pages         EsPecia11^  applicable 


14  1913-14  Ito4  General  All 

16  1913-14  1  Horticulture  III 

17  1913-14  Ito3  Horticulture  III 

18  1913-14  1  to  2  Horticulture  &  Field  Crops  III-IV 


213 

19  1913-14     1  to  2         Horticulture  &  Field  Crops  III-IV 

6  1914-15  Ito2  Horticulture  III 

7  1914-15  1  to  2  Seed  Study  IV 

20  1914-15  2  to  3  General 

21  1914-15  2  to  5  Field  Crops  IV 

46  1915-16  1  to  3  Horticulture  &  Soil  Study  III 

47  1915-16  4  Field  Crops  IV 
56  1915-16  9  to  14  General  All 
17  1913-14  4  to  14  Gardening  III 

6  1914-15  2  to  6  Orcharding  III 

17  1914-15  Ito6  Tomato  Projects  III 

46  1915-16  1  to  13  Horticulture  in  part  III 

56  1915-16  1  to  16  Horticulture  in  part  III 

83  1917-18  3  to  18  Horticulture  III 

Of  these  numbers,  56  and  83  are  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant so  far  as  the  horticultural  element  in  the  work  of 
Year  III  is  concerned,  but  the  others  are  not  to  be  ne- 
glected in  the  work  of  Year  III. 

The  teacher  is  advised  to  own  and  make  constant  use  of 
G.  Stanley  Hall's  rather  expensive  but  well-nigh  indis- 
pensable two-volume  work,  "Adolescence."  It  is  an  in- 
exhaustible pedagogical  gold  mine,  but  it  is  not  to  be  read 
page  after  page  throughout  its  1400  pages.  It  is  a 
reference  book  for  teachers,  who  desire  to  become  "ar- 
tists rather  than  artisans."  Its  index  is  very  complete. 
Chapter  I,  Growth  in  Height  and  Weight;  Chapter  III, 
Growth  of  Motor  Power  and  Function ;  Chapter  XII,  Ado- 
lescent Feelings  Toward  Nature,  etc. ;  Chapter  XVI,  In- 
tellectual Development  and  Education,  are  particularly 
helpful  in  lifting  school  men  and  women  out  of  the  deep 
rut  of  formalism.  These  should  be  read  and  re-read  many 
times.  The  greatest  drag  on  educational  progress  consists 
in  the  fact  that  teachers  and  school  administrators  fail  to 
study  the  literature  of  their  profession.  Hall's  writings 
tend  strongly  to  break  up  mental  adhesion  and  clear  the 
way  for  new,  healthy  growth  and  function. 


214 

FIELD  CROPS  AND  SOIL  STUDY  IV. 


The  Aim. 


There  is  only  one  aim  here,  namely,  the  production  of 
better  crops  of  the  standard  grains,  grasses,  vegetables,  etc., 
than  the  average  of  the  best  farmers  in  the  region.  If  the 
school  fails  to  accomplish  this  the  teacher  is  unequal  to 
the  occasion  and  the  future  of  agricultural  practice  in  that 
community  is  not  likely  to  be  much,  if  any,  improved  by 
making  the  study  of  agriculture  a  part  of  the  school  pro- 
gram. 

Science  applied  to  agriculture  is  either  effective,  or  it 
is  not.  The  higher  institutions  teaching  agriculture  either 
equip  their  graduates  to  produce  better  results  in  field  and 
barn,  or  they  do  not.  If  they  do,  then  the  teacher  of  agri- 
culture in  the  secondary  school  can  demonstrate  a  better 
practice  of  the  art  of  farming  than  that  of  the  average 
farmer,  and  if  he  can  do  this  himself,  he  must  be  able  to 
get  his  knowledge  of  how  to  do  it  across  to  his  pupils,  or  he 
is  a  failure  as  a  teacher.  If  he  is  competent  both  as  a 
practitioner  of  a  better  type  of  farming  and  as  a  teacher, 
then  his  pupils  on  an  average  must  reflect  his  competency 
in  the  superiority  of  their  projects  in  field  crops.  The 
logic,  the  common  sense,  and  the  justice  of  this  is  self  evi- 
dent and  the  success  and  permanence  of  agricultural 
education  in  secondary  schools  rests  upon  the  outcome  as 
shown  by  quantity,  quality,  and  economy  of  crop  produc- 
tion through  the  medium  of  the  home  project. 

Let  no  teacher  deceive  himself  on  this  point:  brilliant 
classroom  work  which  fails  to  function  in  larger  crops  of 
better  quality  than  those  produced  without  the  aid  of  such 
instruction,  will  never  stand  the  acid  test  of  public  opinion 
for  any  great  length  of  time,  and  it  never  ought  to  do  so. 

Standards. 

The  minimum  size  of  field  crop  project  is  one-half  acre 
and  a  reasonable  expectation  is  that  very  few  pupils  will 


215 

have  less  than  three-fourths  of  an  acre  while  at  least  half 
of  the  class  will  have  a  full  acre. 

On  the  side  of  "labor  income"  a  sophomore  boy  well 
instructed  and  properly  supervised  with  a  fair  season, 
ought  to  realize  not  less  than  $100  for  his  home  project 
work  in  field  crops,  that  is  his  personal  income  after  pay- 
ing for  seed,  fertilizers,  team  hire,  etc.,  ought  to  amount 
to  the  sum  named. 

It  may  happen,  however,  in  common  with  other  farm 
enterprises  in  the  locality,  that  the  pupil's  income  is  re- 
duced to  zero  by  frost,  drought,  or  other  uncontrollable  in- 
fluences, for  these  are  hazards  to  which  farming  is  unfor- 
tunately exposed. 

There  is  another  standard  which  inspectors  will  report 
on  but  which  is  hard  to  state  in  definite  terms.  It  is  the 
standard  of  a  reasonably  clean  culture.  This  means  com- 
parative freedom  from  weeds  and  grass,  and  proper  care  of 
the  crop  at  all  stages  of  growth.  A  potato  or  corn  field 
infested  with  ragweed  or  kale  is  not  "reasonably  clean/' 
but  an  oat  field  with  considerable  kale  going  to  seed  is  un- 
avoidable on  many  farms. 

Corn,  beans,  potatoes,  etc.,  with  many  missing  hills  show 
either  lack  of  proper  testing  of  seed,  or  lack  of  vigilance 
when  the  crop  was  first  cultivated,  for  at  that  time  re- 
planting was  possible. 

Suggestions. 

Well-prepared  land,  carefully  planted  with  tested  seed, 
and  intelligently  fertilized  either  with  manure  or  chemical 
fertilizers,  or  both,  and  the  crop  frequently  cultivated  and 
occasionally  hand  hoed,  will  go  a  long  way  toward  insuring 
a  good  crop,  but  there  are  pests  to  fight,  dry  seasons  to 
combat  by  up-to-date  soil  cultivation.  A  potato  crop  may 
be  lost  for  lack  of  spraying  at  a  critical  date.  Close  fol- 
lowing of  the  weather  condition  may  enable  the  wide- 
awake boy  to  shock  his  corn  and  save  it  from  frost.  It  is 
in  these  exceptional  circumstances  that  the  real  teacher 


216 


and  the  real  pupil  win  out  where  the  thoughtless  and  care- 
less fail. 

Bibliography. 

Institute  Circular. 


No. 

14 

18 
19 
21 
47 
56 
7 
46 
83 

Series 

1913-14 
1913-14 
1913-14 
1914-15 
1915-16 
1915-16 
1914-15 
1915-16 
1917-18 

Pages 
5  to  22 

6  to  22 
Ito9 

4  to  13 
5  to  7 
6  to  7 

Dealing  with 

Fertilization 
Injurious  insects 
Plant  diseases 
Crop 

Field  crops 
Field  projects 
Soil  types,  etc. 
Soil  physics 
Soil  types 


Year 

IV 

III-IV 

III-IV 

IV 

IV 

IV 

III-IV 

IV 

III 


No.  56  is  the  most  important  circular  of  the  series  so  far 
as  presenting  a  plan  for  real  projects  is  concerned  and 
teachers  must  make  this  and  No.  21  basic  in  organizing  the 
classroom  and  field  work  of  the  field  crop  course. 

The  study  of  soils  is  made  to  cover  two  years  but  is 
largely  incidental  to  the  courses  in  horticulture  and  field 
crops.  The  subject  for  Year  III  is  to  be  handled  in  a  very 
general  way,  getting  the  pupil  familiar  with  the  two  or 
three  types  of  arable  soil  most  common  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  school.  It  is  the  time  to  increase  the  pupil's  ability  to 
identify  in  the  field  the  soil  with  which  farmers  are  deal- 
ing. 

In  Year  IV,  however,  there  should  be  considerable  prac- 
tical laboratory  investigation  and  demonstration  of  the 
physical  properties  of  soils.  There  is  little  occasion  for 
high  school  laboratory  work  on  the  chemistry  of  soils  for 
the  reason  that  chemistry  gives  us  very  meagre  information 
as  to  the  crop-producing  capacity  of  a  soil. 

Physical  properties  are  of  paramount  importance  so  far 
as  laboratory  demonstrations  go.  The  one  practical  con- 
tribution that  chemistry  can  make  is  the  determination  of 


217 

acidity  and  this  is  practiced  only  when  there  is  a  rational 
interpretation  of  the  result.  (See  circulars  of  the  New 
Jersey  Experiment  Station.) 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  V. 

The  Aim. 

To  make  the  pupil  familiar  with  feeds  and  feeding,  and 
with  breeds  and  breeding,  (a)  by  means  of  actual  feeding 
projects  with  poultry,  swine,  cows,  sheep,  etc.,  (b)  by  ex- 
cursions to  farms  or  fairs  where  standard  animals  may  be 
seen  and  studied,  (c)  by  scoring  according  to  accepted 
methods  whereby  special  points  of  merit  are  specifically 
seen  and  evaluated  and  breed  types  learned. 

Standards. 

•  There  must  be  home  projects  of  sufficient  size  to  make 
possible  a  labor  income  of  $100  or  more.  This  means,  at 
least,  fifty  hens,  ten  sheep,  a  half  dozen  pigs  or  more,  or 
a  pair  of  steers  or  a  heifer  or  two. 

It  all  depends  upon  how  the  project  is  managed,  how- 
ever, for  pigs  carelessly  fed,  or  hens  neglected,  may  easily 
result  in  loss  rather  than  gain. 

Whatever  the  financial  result  may  be  there  is  a  quality 
standard  which  means  much  even  if  there  is  little  money 
gain.  Well-kept  farm  animals,  clean  and  healthy,  are  a 
means  of  education  to  any  boy.  To  care  for  and  think 
about,  and  kindly  treat  a  domesticated  animal  is  to  culti- 
vate a  wholesome  mental  attitude  not  alone  towards  these 
animals  but  towards  the  whole  world  of  living  things  in- 
cluding mankind.  A  child  with  a  pet  animal  or  a  youth 
with  a  useful  farm  animal  means  a  man  with  right  think- 
ing along  humane  lines.  It  means  human  living  under 
hygienic  conditions  if  the  health  of  the  stock  has  been 
thought  about. 

Inspectors  will  look  quite  as  carefully  into  the  conditions 
under  which  animal  husbandry  projects  are  carried  on  as 
into  the  matter  of  financial  gain.  A  financially  profitable 


218 

project  conducted  under  unhygienic  conditions  or  with 
little  regard  to  the  comfort  of  the  animal,  ought  to  be  less 
creditable  to  a  pupil  than  a  project  showing  a  much  smaller 
profit  but  where  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  animal  has 
been  well  provided  for. 

Suggestions. 

Animal  husbandry  projects  ought  to  be  continuous 
through  the  year  V  and  VI,  that  is,  a  project  with  hens, 
sheep,  swine,  cows,  etc.,  should  not  be  started  and  contin- 
ued for  a  few  months  to  be  abandoned  as  are  courses  in 
geometry,  or  Latin,  or  literature,  but  should  become  a  part 
of  the  regular  home  work  of  the  pupil,  especially  if  the 
project  is  successful.  A  pig  project  may  start  with  one 
brood  sow,  but  it  ought  not  to  end  there.  There  should  be 
breeding,  feeding,  and  selling,  and  incidental  to  this  are 
such  practical  problems  as  butchering,  smoking  bacon, 
hams,  and  shoulders,  salting  down  the  fat  parts,  rendering 
lard,  making  sausage,  etc.  All  of  this  is  reasonably  to  be 
expected  of  an  adequate  course  in  agriculture  if  such  a 
course  is  to  become  a  factor  in  improving  the  practice  of 
farming.  For  additional  suggestions  study  carefully  Cir- 
cular No.  56,  pp.  7  to  16. 

Bibliography. 

Institute  Circular. 
No.  Series      Pages        Dealing  with  Year 

56     1915-16     8  A  general  plan  V 

72     1916-17     3  to  9         Henhouse  construction  V 

FARM  ENGINEERING  V.      (FIRST  HALF  YEAR.) 

Aim. 

This  course  aims  to  give  the  pupil  actual  experience  in 
measuring,  computing,  drawing  maps  and  plans,  preparing 
schedules  of  material  and  specifications  for  the  numerous 

t 


219 

construction  projects  involved  in  farm  organization  and 
management. 

The  old-time  courses  in  land  surveying  and  leveling, 
which  some  of  the  academies  of  forty  years  ago  gave,  came 
quite  as  near  being  courses  in  applied  mathematics  as 
many  of  the  recent  efforts  in  that  direction.  Today  boys 
and  girls  in  secondary  schools  will  profit  when  the  com- 
pass, plane-table,  level  and  transit  give  real  meaning  to 
angles  and  triangles,  and  when  a  few  measurements  which 
can  be  made  are  by  mathematical  computation  made  to 
yield  yet  other  dimensions  which  are  inaccessible. 

Arithmetic,  geometry,  trigonometry  and  algebra  are  all 
made  use  of  in  an  effective  way  wherever  surveying  is 
rationally  taught. 

The  subject  is. vocational  in  that  it  deals  with  the  every- 
day needs  of  farm  practice  as  lines  are  run,  areas  com- 
puted, maps  made,  levels  determined  and  grades  estab- 
lished. It  is  educational  in  a  general  sense  because  it 
makes  the  formal  mathematical  sciences  such  as  trigo- 
nometry, geometry,  algebra,  etc.,  understandable  from  their 
concrete  applied  side.  In  fact,  about  the  only  curricula  in 
the  secondary  schools  which  make  possible  a  truly  peda- 
gogical procedure  in  mathematics  are  those  dealing  with 
agriculture  and  mechanic  arts.. 

Standards. 

The  course  in  land  surveying  must  include  chain  or 
tape  determination  of  areas,  plane-table  traversing,  map- 
ping and  computations,  compass  and  chain  surveying,  lev- 
eling and,  when  instruments  can  be  had,  transit  surveying. 

It  is  advised  that  each  pupil  be  required  to  construct 
for  himself  (1)  a  substantial  plane-table  with  small  com- 
pass inset  and  a  sturdy  tripod  on  which  to  mount  it;  (2) 
a  simple  water  level  or  a  spirit  level  with  suitable  sight,  a 
leveling  rod  and  range  rods.  These  projects  can  be  made  a 
part  of  the  wood  and  iron  work  courses  if  other  construe- 


220 

tion  projects  run  short  or  they  can  be  planned  and  super- 
vised by  the  teacher  but  made  as  extra  home  or  school  shop 
work. 

Each  pupil  must  make  a  survey,  either  chain,  compass  or 
plane-table,  of  his  home  farm  or  of  some  farm  that  is  for 
sale  and  compute  the  area,  map  its  division  such  as  fields, 
pasture,  forest  area,  etc.,  this  to  be  a  part  of  the  farm  or- 
ganization course  or  possibly  of  the  farm  management 
course  if  this  seems  better. 

The  class  must  be  taught  to  compute  areas  both  by  trian- 
gulation  and  by  traverse  table  computation,  the  latter,  of 
course,  when  compass  or  plane-table  is  used. 

There  are  many  useful  problems  in  dividing  land  up 
into  proportionate  parts.  Some  of  these  may  be  worked 
out. 

Each  class  must  be  given  an  opportunity  to  work  out  one 
good  project  in  leveling  either  to  establish  grades  for 
drainage  or  to  determine  possibilities  of  gravity  water  sup- 
ply. These  cannot  be  book  problems  but  must  be  based  on 
an  actual  survey  on  some  farm  where  such  work  is  actually 
needed,  even  though  it  is  not  likely  to  be  carried  out  at 
present.  There  are  interesting  problems  connected 
with  the  magnetic  needle  and  its  variations,  as  well  as  with 
the  establishment  of  a  true,  meridian  at  any  place.  Old 
deeds,  the  date  of  whose  survey  is  known,  can  often  be 
found  and  courses  determined  from  which  the  change  in 
the  magnetic  meridian  can  be  discovered. 

CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION. 

Each  class  must  have  an  opportunity  for  making  plans, 
constructing  forms  and  building  some  worth  while  project 
in  concrete. 

There  is  no  place  here  for  the  diminutive,  make-believe 
projects.  Every  community  is  in  need  of  sidewalks,  curb- 
stones, watering  troughs,  steps  to  public  buildings,  etc., 
and  will  usually  provide  the  raw  material  if  the  teachers 
and  class  will  do  the  constructing. 


221 

Most  schoolhouses  are  in  need  of  basement  floors,  vaults, 
retaining  wells,  steps,  fence  posts,  etc.,  and  there  are  few 
farms  from  which  pupils  come  which  do  not  need  a  water- 
ing trough,  septic  tank,  silo  foundation  or  some  other  con- 
venience into  which  concrete  enters.  The  live  teacher  and 
live  class  will  find  plenty  of  chance  for  making  real  things 
rather  than  to  construct  "models"  of  bridges,  troughs, 
fence  posts,  tanks,  etc.,  on  a  one-eighth  scale. 

It  is  quite  possible  for  some  schools  to  make  forms  for 
concrete  block  making  and  to  make  a  supply  of  blocks  for 
some  purpose  such  as  a  blacksmith  shop  or  the  underpin- 
ning for  a  work  shop. 

Mixing  concrete  is  an  art  dependent  on  some  ^very  defi- 
nite principles  of  science  and  the  difference  between-  good, 
durable  work  and  work  that  is  unsatisfactory  depends 
largely  upon  three  factors:  (1)  the  kind  of  material  used, 

(2)  the  proportion  in  which  the  materials  are  used,  and 

(3)  the  skill  with  which  these  materials  are  mixed  and 
rammed  into  the  forms.     The  pupil  should  go  out  from 
this  course  knowing  the  why  and  how  of  the  process  well 
enough  to  take  charge  of  and  turn  out  a  good  job. 

MISCELLANEOUS    OPPORTUNITIES. 

Measuring  and  computing  wood,  lumber,  standing  tim- 
ber, hay,  coal,  ensilage,  earth  excavation,  fills,  establishing 
road  grades,  etc. 

Suggestion. 

In  addition  to  what  has  been  said  it  is  well  to  point  out 
that  the  old-time  course  in  mensuration  which  many  of  us 
struggled  with  in  Greenleaf's  National  Arithmetic  was  a 
course  in  applied  mathematics  just  such  as  is  contemplated 
here  except  that  the  old  course  had  the  data  all  given  in  the 
problems  presented.  This  course  involves  many  of  the 
same  computations  but  it  insists  upon  making  the  problems 
real  and  requires  the  pupil  not  only  to  measure  and  esti- 


222 

mate  but  also  to  test  the  results  of  his  computations,  so  far 
as  possible,  by  actually  doing  things.  The  old  way  was 
chiefly  a  matter  of  intellectual  accomplishment.  The  new 
adds  the  motor  element  of  hand  work,  of  construction,  of 
utility.  The  former  had  no  obvious  relation  to  human 
needs,  the  latter  makes  human  well-being  fundamental. 

The  old  plan  ended  for  the  most  part  with  some  mem- 
orized rules  and  certain  skill  in  the  use  of  figures.  The 
new  starts  with  facts  obtained  first-hand  and  gives  the 
pupil  a  chance  to  know  why  he  figures  on  62 %  pounds  of 
water  per  cubic  foot,  or  550  cubic  feet  of  hay  per  ton, 
etc.,  and  it  clinches  the  knowledge  thus  discovered  by  in- 
corporating the  result  in  the  muscles  .as  well  as  the  brain. 
Psychologically,  we  must  remember  that  motor  habits  per- 
sist long  after  the  mental  factor  which  contributed  towards 
the  habit  has  faded  past  recall  and  equally  important  is 
the  fact  that  the  motor  habit  has  the  power  of  reviving 
the  faded  mental  factor. 

FARM  MACHINERY  V.    (SECOND  HALF  YEAR.) 

Aim. 

This  is  a  very  practical  course  designed  to  familiarize 
the  pupil  with  the  tools  and  mechanisms  found  on  a  mod- 
ern farm. 

It  involves  three  factors:  (1)  a  study  of  actual  machines 
in  operation  to  see  what  they  are  designed  to  accomplish 
and  how  well  they  are  doing  the  work;  (2)  a  study  of  the 
various  adjustments  by  means  of  which  the  character, 
quantity  and  quality  of  work  performed  is  varied  to  meet 
differing  conditions;  (3)  the  discovery  of  the  most  common 
defects  and  failures  due  to  wrong  adjustment,  weakness, 
etc.,  to  see  what  precautions  are  necessary  to  guard  against 
these  failures  and  what  must  be  done  to  restore  worn  parts. 

The  course  should  cover  every  device  commonly  used  on 
the  farms  in  the  region  about  the  school  from  simple  ma- 
chines like  the  cultivator  or  corn  planter  to  the  most  com- 


223 

plicated  such  as  cream  separator,  threshing  machine  and 
tractor. 

The  pupil  must  know  by  experience  how  to  adjust  and 
prove  the  rate  of  seeding  of  hill,  drill  or  broadcast  seeders ; 
must  be  able  to  control  the  amount  of  fertilizer  to  be  dis- 
tributed; must  know  how  to  determine  the  speed  of 
threshers,  cream  separators,  grinding  mills,  saws,  etc.,  and 
be  able  to  control  the  speed  of  gas  engines  or  other  motors. 

The  vagaries  of .  automobiles,  so  far  as  human  wisdom 
permits,  should  be  inquired  into  and  the  processes  involved 
in  the  ordinary  up-keep  of  valves,  cylinders,  bearings,  bat- 
teries of  the  gasoline  .  motor  should  be  learned  through 
actual  experience  supplemented  by  verbal  or  written  in- 
struction. 

The  major  aim  must  be  to  instruct  pupils  as  to  reason- 
able care  of  farm  machinery :  how  and  when  to  oil,  take  up 
wear,  babbitt  boxes,  clean,  paint,  etc. 

It  is  probable  that  the  depreciation  of  farm  tools  when 
not  in  use  is  nearly  as  great  as  when  in  use,  partly  because 
many  machines  are  used  only  a  few  days  per  year  but 
more  because  of  the  condition  in  which  the  machine  is  put 
away  or  unfavorable  surroundings  where  it  is  stored. 

Standards. 

Each  class  must  study  in  detail  and  first-hand  such  tools 
under  the  following  heads  as  are  in  use  on  the  farms  in  the 
country. 

A.  Plows,  walking,  sulky  and  tractor. 

B.  Harrows,  disk,  cutaway,  spring  tooth,  acme,  smooth- 

ing, etc. 

C.  Seeders,  broadcast,  drill,  Jiill,  check-row. 

D.  Fertilizer     Distributors,     manure     spreader,     lime 

spreader,  etc. 

E.  Cultivators,  Planet,  Jr., ' '  fourteen ' '  tooth,  two-horse, 

two-row. 


224 

F.  Harvesting    Machines,    mowing    machine,    reaper, 

thresher,  corn  binder,  ensilage  cutter,  potato  dig- 
ger, corn  husker,  hay  rake,  hay  loader,  horse  fork. 

G.  Power    Generators,    gasoline    or    kerosene    engines, 

steam  engines,  electric  motor,  tractor,  water  mo- 
tor. 

H.     Transportation,  etc.,  automobile,  truck,  farm  wagon. 
I.      Electric  lighting  and  water  pumping  outfits. 

J.  Dairy  Devices,  milking  machine,  separator,  churn, 
butter  worker,  milk  bottler,  cheese-making  equip- 
ment. 

Suggestions. 

The  local  farm  machinery  agent  is  a  valuable  man  to 
cooperate  with.  A  half  day  spent  in  actual  work  helping 
to  set  up  a  variety  of  machines  and  a  study  of  the  cata- 
logues and  instructions  for  assembling  these  will  give  a 
greater  knowledge  than  weeks  spent  in  studying  about  ma- 
chines in  general. 

How  are  the  parts  assembled?  How  held  together? 
What  safeguards  to  prevent  nuts  becoming  loose?  These 
are  the  things  one  needs  to  know  in  selecting  machinery. 

The  •  draft  of  machines  varies  considerably  and  often 
the  farmer  is  overloading  his  team  without  knowing  it. 
Does  the  plow  .draw  harder  than  the  disk  harrow  ? 

How  does  the  biggest  load  of  hay  compare,  as  a  load  for 
a  pair  of  horses,  with  a  cord  of  green  wood  ? 

Does  a  mowing  machine  require  as  much  power  to  oper- 
ate it  as  does  a  spring-tooth  harrow  ? 

A  clevis  dynamometer  as  part  of  the  equipment  of  an 
agricultural  school  is  needed  in  answering  such  questions. 

FARM  ORGANIZATION  VI.       (FIRST  HAEF  YEAR.) 

The  Aim. 

The  course  in  farm  organization  is  a  half-year  course 
and  must  be  kept  distinct  from  the  course  in  farm  man- 


225 

agement.  The  two  make  up  a  year's  work  but  are  not  to  be 
given  combined. 

This  course  in  farm  organization  is  best  planned  when 
the  teacher  has  in  mind  the  problems  which  would  con- 
front a  young  man  about  to  embark  in  the  business  of 
farming.  It  involves  all  of  the  planning  incident  to  buy- 
ing a  farm,  remodeling  its  buildings,  or  building  new, 
deciding  upon  the  type  of  farming  best  for  the  given  sit- 
uation, studying  the  land,  outlining  a  suitable  rotation  of 
crops,  selecting  farm  stock,  machinery,  seed  and  fertilizers, 
and  deciding  upon  the  amount  of  help  necessary  to  run  the 
enterprise  when  the  time  comes.  In  short,  it  is  concerned 
with  every  detail  involved  in  getting  the  outfit  selected  and 
in  shape  to  be  operated. 

This  will  be  best  accomplished  by  requiring  each  pupil 
to  assume  as  his  particular  project  the  task  of  organizing 
such  a  farm  as  he  would  like  to  own  and  manage,  keeping 
the  magnitude  of  the  enterprise  within  such  reasonable 
limit  as  a  moderate  capital  of  say  two  or  three  thousand 
dollars  would  warrant.  In  most  cases  it  will  be  best  to 
have  the  pupil  deal  with  the  re-organization  of  the  farm 
on  which  he  lives,  or  study  the  condition  on  some  farm 
nearby  which  is  for  sale. 

Standards. 

The  pupil  must  be  led  to  consider  himself  as  actually 
entering  into  the  real  task  of  putting  such  farm  into  shape 
to  be  farmed  as  he  would  do  it. 

(a)  There  must  be  a  map  of  an  actual  farm  that  the 
pupil  is  studying.     (This  is  work  for  the  farm  engineering 
class  to  take  up  at  the  very  start  of  that  course.)  The  fields, 
pastures,  needed  drains,  etc.,  must  be  shown  on  the  map. 

(b)  There  must  be  measurements  made  and  a  plan  of 
the  existing  building  drawn  to  scale.     Upon  this  plan  the 
work  of  remodeling  must  be  based.    Estimates  of  cost  must 
be  made  and  verified  as  far  as  possible. 

15 


226 

(c)  The  type  of  farming  must  be  worked  out  in  general 
for  tools  and  equipment,  rotation  of  crops,  plan  of  build- 
ings, etc.,  all  are  affected  to  some  extent  by  the  kind  of 
farming  proposed. 

(d)  The  equipment  must  be  selected,  not  from  a  text- 
book, but  from  the  farm  machinery  dealer,  or  from  cata- 
logues of  manufacturers.     Costs  must  be  determined. 

(e)  The  kind  and  amount  of  farm  animals  proposed, 
and  the  probable  cost  must  be  decided  upon. 

(f)  There  must  be  a  preliminary  study  of  market,  ship- 
ping facilities,  roads,   etc.,   as  a  basis  for  an  intelligent 
choice  of  the  kinds  of  farming. 

Inspectors  will  call  for  plans,  estimates,  maps  and  writ- 
ten papers  covering  the  divisions  above  outlined  and  will 
require  pupil  to  show  notebooks  in  which  they  have  re- 
corded the  data  they  have  collected. 

Suggestions. 

Make  the  planning  as  real  as  possible  by  requiring  each 
pupil  to"  collect  information  from  local  farms,  from  dealers 
in  equipment,  from  carpenters,  masons,  etc. 

Do  not  let  the  pupils  spend  time  on  planning  and  fur- 
nishing the  house  except  so  far  as  parts  of  it  relate  to  the 
man's  part  of  management. 

Domestic  arts  classes  cover  the  home  planning  and  the 
teacher  of  agriculture  should  \vork  with  the  teacher  of 
domestic  arts  thus  getting  both  a  farm  and  a  home  organ- 
ized. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  course  reviews  all  of  the  pre- 
ceding courses;  for  example,  that  on  soils,  horticulture, 
field  crops,  animal  husbandry,  forestry,  farm  engineering, 
farm  machinery,  etc. 

Bibliography. 

There  is  a  vast  amount  of  material  available  and  for- 
tunately it  has  not  been  formalized,  peptonized  and  devi- 


227  • 

talized  by  textbook  makers.  It  is  found  in  catalogues  of 
farm  machinery  and  seed  catalogues ;  in  agricultural  mag- 
azines and  papers;  in  bulletins  and  reports  of  experiment 
stations  and  in  agricultural  encyclopedias  and  reference 
books. 

Better  than  this,  just  what  is  needed  by  these  boys  is 
known  by  scores  of  good  farmers  in  the  region  about  the 
school. 

Every  agricultural  fair  has  valuable  exhibits  of  almost 
everything  essential  to  the  farm,  cattle,  crops,  tools,  trac- 
tors, fertilizers,  feed,  etc. 

The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  New  Hampshire 
has  reports  and  the  Deputy  Commissioner  issues  market 
letters  and  both  will  gladly  answer  any  reasonable  number 
of  questions  which  agricultural  pupils  may  ask. 

The  world  is  so  full  of  facts  and  figures  relative  to  the 
topics  of  this  course  that  it  is  a  pedagogical  sin  to  turn  to 
the  index  of  a  textbook  to  determine  whether  it  is  profitable 
to  grow  potatoes  in  Coos  County  or  to  sell  milk  in  Concord. 

This  course  to  be  worth  while  must  be  a  project  course. 
Therefore,  half  of  the  time  devoted  to  it  should  be  spent 
in  gathering  facts  and  opinions,  inspecting  farms,  herds, 
tools  and  buildings,  making  approximate  surveys  of  fields 
or  measurements  of  farm  buildings,  drawing  plans  and 
maps,  making  out  schedules  of  lumber  needed  for  repairs 
or  for  new  construction. 

The  other  half  should  be  spent  in  lively  discussions  of 
the  facts  and  figures  brought  in  by  the  class,  arguments 
as  to  proposed  plans,  etc. 

Topics  may  be  assigned  whenever  need  arises  but  to 
debase  this  course  to  the  level  of  cut-and-dried  general 
classroom  work  divorced  for  the  most  part  from  anything 
specific  and  personal  and  practical,  is  to  defeat  its  purpose 
entirely  and  it  would  better  not  be  given  at  all. 


1  228 

FARM   MANAGEMENT  VI.       (SECOND   HALF  YEAR.). 

The  Aim. 

This  course  takes  up  the  work  where  farm  organization 
ends  and  involves  the  idea  of  actually  running  the  same 
farm  that  has  been  organized. 

Each  pupil  will  have  his  own  problems  to  solve  and  the 
success  of  his  solution  will  be  determined  largely  by  the 
reasonableness  of  his  estimated  expenses  and  probable  in- 
come. 

Each  pupil  must  endeavor  to  put  himself  into  the  posi- 
tion of  the  owner  and  manager  of  such  a  farm  as  he  has 
organized  and  should  draw  as  many  of  his  facts  and  figures 
from  his  own  home  experience  or  from  the  experience  of 
the  best  farmers  in  his  neighborhood  as  possible. 

If  he  has  had  a  successful  animal  husbandry  project  he 
can  use  this  experience.  If  he  knows  of  successful  farmers 
near  by,  he  can  get  much  valuable  data  from  them  as  to 
labor  cost  for  farm  operation,  yields  of  crops,  value  of 
products,  etc. 

One  of  the  very  large  factors  in  a  successful  farm  enter- 
prise is  a  rational  rotation  of  crops  suited  to  the  given  soil 
and  meeting  the  needs  of  the  particular  type  of  farming 
proposed. 

The  farm  map  should  definitely  show  how  and  when  this 
rotation  is  to  be  managed  and  should  cover  years  enough  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  farm. 

Standards. 

Each  pupil  must  keep  good,  readable  notes  giving  the 
facts  he  has  gathered  up  and  their  sources. 

He  must  write  up  the  reasons  for  his  proposed  crop  rota- 
tion and  set  forth  his  expectations  as  to  expenses  and  in- 
come. 

There  should  be  in  permanent  shape  for  inspection  at 
any  time,  as  the  work  progresses,  notebooks  giving  the 


229 

common  per  acre  yield  of  the  standard  crops  he  is  to  raise 
and  a  detailed  statement  as  to  how  he  proposes  to  improve 
the  fertility  of  his  land  or  improve  his  farm  animals  or  get 
better  strains  of  seed. 

There  must  be  at  least  one  good  report  of  the  way  the 
pupil  would  market  his  products. 

Each  pupil  must  keep  a  set  of  farm  accounts  along  with 
his  farm  management  project.  The  entries  must  be  those 
decided  upon  as  representing  reasonable  expenses  and  in- 
come for  the  operations  involved.  Farm  account  keeping 
should  be  in  very  simple  form  such  in  fact  as  could  be  kept 
by  every  farmer  without  involving  too  much  detail. 

Each  pupil  will  be  required  to  carefully  study  and  write 
one  essay  on  a  subject  to  be  selected  -from  the  following 
list: 

The  farmer's  interest  in  good  roads. 
Local  taxation  of  farms  as  compared  with  other  busi- 
nesses. 

The  Grange  as  a  help  to  the  farmer. 

How  to  improve  a  herd  of  cows. 

Tuberculosis  and  how  to  guard  against  it. 

Does  the  Tariff  favor  or  injure  the  farmer? 

Does  milk  selling  pay? 

"What  crop  produces  the  most  profitable  fodder  for  cows  ? 

Is  poultry  farming  profitable? 

Suggestions  and  Bibliography. 
See  course  in  Farm  Organization. 

ROAD  BUILDING  VI.       ( ONE-HALF  YEAR.) 

The  day  of  irresponsible  road  repairing  is  rapidly  pass- 
ing and  a  new  order  of  intelligent  effort  is  beginning  to 
show  results  in  the  form  of  highways  over  which  it  is  rea- 
sonably comfortable  to  ride  and  whose  surface  and  grades 
make  it  possible  to  draw  much  larger  loads  of  farm  prod- 
ucts and  merchandise. 


230 

The  science  and  art  of  the  highway  engineer  has  brought 
about  some  very  substantial  results  but  there  is  yet,  in 
cities  and  villages,  as  well  as  small  towns,  much  of  the 
old  wasteful,  hopelessly  unintelligent  repair  work  which 
year  after  year  scrapes  mud  from  the  gutters  into  the  road- 
way and  piles  dirt  and  turf  over  rocks. 

Aim. 

A  course  in  road  building  in  the  high  school  is  justified 
on  the  well-known  principle  that  habits,  good  or  bad,  are 
easiest  formed  and  most  persistent  when  acquired  during 
the  mid-adolescent  years  from  fifteen  to  eighteen. 

If  at  this  time  boys  see  and  take  part  in  the  old-time 
annual  riot  of  road  repairing,  so  called,  they  will  strongly 
tend  towards  perpetuating  the  methods  with  which  they 
are  familiar,  but  if  the  public  school  can,  by  an  appeal  to 
their  developing  intelligence  show  that  heaping  sods  and 
dust  in  the  roadway  is  not  making  a  road,  or  that  dumping 
a  load  of  sand  in  a  hole  from  which  standing  water  cannot 
escape  is  not  permanently  overcoming  the  difficulty,  or 
that  leaving  side  ditches  without  an  outlet  for  the  water 
they  collect  is  not  providing  drainage, — if  the  school  can 
get  these  facts  and  others  home  to  the  receptive  mind  of 
the  boy,  it  will  strongly  tend  to  discount  the  influence  of 
the  bad  practice  he  sees  about  him. 

The  aim,  then,  is  to  show  the  horrible  examples  of  ' '  road 
fixing"  that  are  still  too  prevalent;  to  examine  roads  con- 
structed by  competent  engineers;  to  point  out  the  differ- 
ences between  good  and  bad  roads,  and  to  discover  the  engi- 
neering process  by  which  satisfactory  roads  are  built. 

The  course  must  acquaint  the  pupil  with  the  local  road 
building  material  and  show  how  it  ought  to  be  combined  to 
produce  good  gravel  roads,  for  these  will  always  be  the 
kind  of  rural  road  which  can  be  afforded. 

The  cost  of  building  and  maintaining  must  be  investi- 
gated: (a)  from  local  construction;  (b)  from  the  reports 
of  the  State  Highway  Commission;  (c)  from  other  engi- 


231 
\ 

neering  sources.  At  the  same  time  there  must  be  a  reason- 
able interpretation  of  the  town 's  ability  to  bear  tax  burden 
so  that  plans  may  be  worked  out  for  a  general  system  of 
permanent  highway  improvement.  The  state  has  plans  for 
the  progressive  construction  of  a  series  of  improved  high- 
ways and  main  crossroads.  In  a  similar  way  the  class 
should  chart  all  roads  of  the  town  and  devise  plans  for  the 
systematic  improvement  of  the  main  thoroughfares  and 
most  needed  highways. 

Actual  methods  of  road  construction,  improvement  and 
upkeep  must  be  made  evident  to  the  class  by  numerous 
excursions  to  places  where  work  is  being  properly,  done 
under  the  direction  of  engineers  or  road  builders. 

Standards. 

The  class  must  make  surveys  and  establish  grades  figur- 
ing cuts,  fills,  etc.,  and  make  plans  for  the  improvement 
of  at  least  one-fourth  mile  of  road  near  to  the  school.  It 
will  be  best  to  take  some  road  that  is  likely  in  the  near 
future  to  be  improved.  It  may  be  possible  through  coop- 
eration with  local  or  state  road  agents  or  engineers  to  have 
this  work  of  the  class  become  a  part  of  the  plan  of  work 
adopted  by  the  town,  and  if  so,  the  school  will  have  become 
a  real  factor  in  public  improvement  as  should  be  the  case. 

Each  pupil  should  be  given  as  a  definite  problem,  a  piece 
of  road  on  which  he  is  to  report  from  time  to  time  relative 
to  work  needed  to  keep  it  in  good  order  thereby  showing  to 
the  class  the  need  of  constant  inspection  and  timely  repairs 
as  a  matter  of  economy. 

Suggestions. 

If  possible  make  arrangements  with  the  highway  author- 
ities so  that  the  class  may  actually  take  charge  of  a  definite 
section  of  road  near  the  school,  doing  all  of  the  work  of 
improving  and  keeping  it  in  repair  year  after  year,  the 
town  or  city  of  course  furnishing  material  and  teams.  A 
quarter  or  half  mile  is  probably  a  desirable  project. 


232 

Bibliography. 

The  State  Highway  Commission  Reports  and  Bulletins. 

National  publications  of  various  kinds. 

Any  good  reference  book  on  road  building. 

Note :  The  best  lessons,  however,  are  object  lessons  of 
good,  bad  and  indifferent  roads  and  an  on-the-spot  discus- 
sion of  their  differences. 

FORESTRY  VI.       (SECOND  HALF  YEAR.) 

Aim. 

The  aim  is  to  encourage  pupils  to  look  upon  the  forests 
as  an  important  part  of  the  farm  to  be  intelligently  han- 
dled, having  proper  regard  to  its  preservation  and  use. 

The  course  must  be  made  practical  by  giving  each  pupil, 
if  possible,  an  actual  project  in  reforesting  or  thinning  or 
otherwise  improving  forest  areas. 

Standards. 

The  class  must  study  the  problem  of  seed  collection  and 
get  samples  of  seeds  from  each  of  the  important  forest 
trees  in  the  region.  It  may  be  possible  to  collect  some  of 
these  in  quantity  sufficient  to  be  of  commercial  value  or  at 
least  enough  to  test  for  germination  and  perhaps  raise  a 
few  seedlings. 

The  process  of  setting  out  seedling  pines  must  be  taught 
by  practice,  for  on  almost  every  farm  there  is  land  which 
ought  to  be  producing  timber,  and  pines  set  out  by  high 
school  pupils  will  be  large  enough  to  convert  into  lumber 
before  the  pupil  is  fifty  years  old.  A  little  foresight  and 
assistance  may  very  well  lay  a  foundation  for  a  substantial 
income  later  in  life.  Many  New  Hampshire  towns  at 
small  expense  can  buy  some  poor  farm  on  which  the  build- 
ings have  been  burned.  The  class  could  easily  reforest  with 
young  pines,  an  acre  a  year.  The  care  of  these  pines  and 
of  other  wood  growth,  would  furnish  the  class  with  a  field 


233 

for  action.  If  this  plan  were  continued  for  a  series  of 
years  the  income  from  the  town  forests  would  aid  mate- 
rially in  the  support  of  the  schools. 

Each  pupil  should  be  shown  how  the  home  wood  lot  can 
be  economically  managed  or  a  lumber  lot  thinned  and  im- 
proved. 

There  should  be  some  practical  work  in  scaling  logs  and 
in  estimating  standing  timber. 

Brief  investigation  of  the  kinds  of  timber  in  local  forests 
and  the  rate  of  growth  of  each  kind  with  some  actual  de- 
termination of  the  age  of  trees,  etc.,  are  necessary  in 
this  course. 

Suggestions. 

There  is  no  textbook  that  can  be  made  the  basis  of  this 
course.  It  is  a  new  and  rapidly  developing  subject  in  this 
country  and  the  reports  and  bulletins  of  State  and  National 
boards,  bureaus  and  commissions  contain  all  the  reference 
material  needed,  if  the  teacher  works  out  a  practical  list 
of  topics  for  investigation. 

REFERENCE  BOOKS  IN  AGRICULTURE.  » 

GENERAL. 

The  Farmer's  Cyclopedia:  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company. 

Every  high  school  in  which  agriculture  is  taught  should 
have  in  its  reference  library  this  cyclopedia. 

The  opening  paragraph  in  the  introductory  to  the  set 
is  as  follows:  "Practically  all  of  the  matter  in  the  seven 
volumes  of  this  series  is  taken  bodily  from  the  bulletins, 
circulars,  annual  reports,  year  books  and  other  documents 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  Experiment  Sta- 
tions of  the  United  States  and  Canada." 

There  are  numerous  references  throughout  the  volumes 
to  the  original  sources  and  for  these  alone  the  work  is  in- 
valuable to  teachers  and  pupils. 


234 

HORTICULTURE. 


Garden  Farming,  Corbett :  Ginn  &  Company. 
Market  Gardening,  Burkett:  Ginn  &  Company. 
Market  Gardening,  Lloyd:  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 
Orcharding,  Sears :  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 


FIELD  CROPS. 

Productive  Farm  Crops,  Montgomery:  J.  B.  Lippincott 
Company. 

ANIMAL    HUSBANDRY. 

Productive  Poultry  Husbandry,  Lewis:  J.  B.  Lippincott 
Company. 

Common  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals,  Craig:  J.  B.  Lip- 
pincott Company. 

The  above  are  not  textbooks  suitable  for  secondary 
school  courses.  They  are,  however,  very  valuable  for  the 
reference  table. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MECHANIC  ARTS. 

The  program  of  studies  for  the  elementary  schools  of 
New  Hampshire  in  Chapter  XVII  gives  suggestions  for 
manual  training  for  Grades  V,  VI,  VII  and  VIII.  The 
last  two  of  these  grades  are  now  coming  to  be  included  in 
the  high  school  system  as  a  Junior  High  School  and  there- 
fore require  some  consideration  in  this  program. 

MANUAL  TRAINING  I  AND  II   (GRADES  VII  AND  VIII ). 

This  is  the  age  (12.5  years  to  14.5  years)  when  boys  have 
a  strong  tendency  to  investigate  the  phenomena  of  nature's 


235 

forces  as  they  act  upon  and  through  the  material  world, 
but  it  is  more  than  this, — it  is  the  age  when  boys  begin 
to  make  things  that  can  be  used  to  harness  these  forces.  It 
just  precedes  and  foreshadows  the  inventive-creative  period 
and  prepares  for  it  by  causing  the  boy  to  imitate  in  his  own 
way,  the  devices,  machines  and  contrivances  which  adults 
are  making  use  of  in  their  daily  employment. 

Manual  training  in  this  stage  of  the  boy's  development 
ought  to  concern  itself  with  making  many  things,  useful 
from  his  standpoint,  as — double  runners  with  safety 
brake  and  steering  wheel;  hand  carts  large  enough  to  use 
yet  simple  enough  to  be  easily  within  the  pupil's  construc- 
tive power ;  a  threshing  machinej  if  he  is  a  farm  boy,  with 
which  he  can  actually  thresh  out  turnip,  cabbage,  beet  and 
radish  seed  raised  in  his  garden  and  to  be  used  in  next 
season's  planting;  a  water  wheel  if  he  lives  near  a  brook, 
one  large  enough  to  drive  this  threshing  machine  or  to 
pump  water  or  run  a  jig  saw  or  grindstone;  a  windmill, 
though  not  particularly  useful,  will  fascinate  a  boy  if  he 
builds  one  and  it  may  serve  the  important  purpose  of  help- 
ing to  disclose  to  the  boy,  himself,  some  unusual  tendency 
towards  mechanical  inventiveness. 

The  farm-reared  boy  has  abundant  opportunity  "for  do- 
ing odd  jobs  at  repairing  farm  machines  and  equipment 
and  the  ages  here  provided  for  are  the  very  ones  during 
which  the  foundation  for  resourcefulness  in  adapting 
means  to  ends  is  laid.  A  new  spoke  in  a  wheelbarrow,  a 
new  spring  in  a  door  lock,  a  new  frame  for  climbing  roses, 
a  new  leg  in  a  chair,  a  cupboard  for  the  pantry,  a  tobog- 
gan, skis,  anything  and  everything  which  is  manifestly 
useful  and,  if  possible,  has  some  complications  in  its 
make-up  that  baffle  and  yet  excite  a  determination  to 
accomplish  the  result  some  way,-— these  are  the  things  the 
teacher  must  plan  with  his  class. 

"Never  saw  or  plane  a  piece  of  wood  unless  it  is  to  be 
used  in  a  project  in  a  way  which  the  pupil  foresees." 

Find  what  your  pupils  want  to  make,  but  do  not  try  to 


236 

make  every  boy  think  he  needs  trousers-hangers  for  his 
knee  breeches  or  a  coat-hanger  for  his  jumper. 

"Don't  try  to  teach  a  boy  to  plane  a  straight  edge  on 
a  three-inch  sandpaper  block  with  a  twelve-inch  jack- 
plane."  It  cannot  be  done  and  it  is  futile  even  if  accom- 
plished. 

Do  not  bother  about  blue  prints.  Make  something  and 
learn  about  reading  plans  later. 

SUGGESTED    LIST    OP    PROJECTS. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  some  things  which  boys  have 
shown  a  desire  to  make.  They  are  not  classified  by  grades 
and  could  not  be.  They  are  not  in  any  sense  of  universal 
value  and  are  only  attached  to  this  course  in  order  to 
suggest  the  type  of  thing  which  makes  good  project  work. 

Box  and  cover,  lamp  table  and  drawer,  bookcase,  dress- 
ing table,  small  desk,  piano  bench,  plant  stand,  small 
stool,  moulding  board,  drawing  board,  T-square,  clothes 
chest,  tool  chest,  simple  to  elaborate  chair,  sewing  table, 
typewriter  table,  case  of  drawers  for  card  system,  bill 
files,  bulletin  and  pamphlet  boxes,  whippletree  and  neck 
yoke,  axe  handle,  hand-cart,  wheelbarrow,  hammer  han- 
dle, plane  body  and  handle,  marking  gauge,  bench  stop, 
poultry  feeder,  trap  nests,  box  trap,  grain  boxes,  egg  cases 
and  carriers,  milking  stool,  wagon  cross-bar  or  wood  axle, 
grindstone  bench,  cheese  press,  butter-maker,  .butter 
stamp,  cart  body,  wagon  body,  hayrack,  harrow  frame, 
plow  beam,  ox  yoke,  farm  sleds,  hotbed  sash,  portable  hen- 
house, swine  house. 

MECHANIC  ARTS  III,  IV,  V  AND  VI    (GRADES  IX,  X,  XI  AND  XII ). 

Aim. 

This  curriculum  is  both  vocational  and  educational  in  a 
general  sense.  It  deals  with  pupils  from  14.5  years  to 
18.5  years  of  age.  The  first  two  years  of  this  period  is  the 


5^37 

time  for  making  up  permanent  psycho-physical  adjust- 
ments and  hence  is  a  time  for  getting  right  motor  habits 
through  sensible  constructive  work  in  wood,  iron,  textiles, 
etc. 

It  is  most  emphatically  not  the  time  for  aiming  to  get 
skill  and  productive  efficiency.  "The  short-sighted 
method  which  falls  back  on  mechanical  routine  and  repeti- 
tion to  secure  external  efficiency  of  habit,  motor  skill  with- 
out accompanying  thought,  marks' a  deliberate  closing  in 
of  surroundings  upon  growth." — Dewey,  Democracy  and 
Education,  pages  58-59. 

To  divorce  thinking  (mental  organization)  from  doing 
(motor  expression)  is  to  break  up  the  biological  order  of 
reaction  to  environment  common  to  all  animal  life  from 
protozoa  to  man.  For  all  ages  below  18  certainly  manipu- 
lative expertness,  habituated  motor  response,  efficient  pro- 
duction, movement  minus  mind, — the  whole  evil  brood  of 
movements  (expression)  under  automatic  control  such  as 
economic  efficiency  demands  is  a  pedagogical  sin  for  which 
no  school  system  and  no  true  teacher  can  assume  responsi- 
bility. It  is  defying  nature's  laws  and  imposes  the  penalty 
of  motor  precocity  and  its  inevitable  correlate,  arrested 
intellectual  development. 

Hall  has  this  to  say  concerning  the  years  from  about 
fourteen  to  sixteen :"....  now  again  comes  a  greatly 
increased  danger  ....  that  over  precision,  especially  if 
fundamental  activities  are  neglected,  will  bring  nervous 
strain  and  stunting  precocity."  Again:  "machinery  has 
relieved  the  large  basal  muscles  and  laid  more  stress  upon 
fine  and  exact  movements  that  involve  nerve  strain." 

The  public  school  dealing  as  it  does  with  youth  under 
the  age  of  eighteen  years  has  no  right  to  prematurely 
automatize  its  pupils  by  training  them  through  the  use  of 
commercially  productive  machinery  in  which  the  really  in- 
tellectual elements  of  the  processes  are  incorporated  in 
the  gears,  cams,  levers,  etc.,  of  the  machine,  the  operator 
being  degraded  to  a  mere  handler  of  raw  material. 


238 

To  illustrate :  no  one  doubts  the  economic  efficiency  of  a 
quick  change  gear  mechanism  on  an  engine  lathe;  a  few 
easily  acquired  adjustments  according  to  the  directions  on 
the  plate,  the  movement  of  a  lever  or  two,  and  the  desired 
thread  or  cutting  speed  is  assured,  but  how  about  the  boy 
who  is  not  only  learning  how  to  cut  a  thread  but  is  at  the 
same  time  fitting  himself  to  meet  in  full  his  duties  as  a 
doer  of  the  world's  work? 

As  a  matter  of  fact  he  has  become  an  attachment  of  the 
lathe.  He  moves  the  lever  as  directed  but  knows  nothing 
of  the  ratio  of  the  gears  or  the  application  of  proportion 
involved.  When  he  comes  to  a  problem  not  provided  for  in 
the  lathe  mechanism  he  is  helpless. 

An  old  style  lathe  with  a  peck  of  change  gears  stacked 
up  in  a  tool  box  is  vastly  better  for  a  school  shop  than  a 
lathe  with  the  most  elaborate  mechanism  man  has  yet 
devised  because  the  former  mentalizes  every  movement  and 
keeps  impression  and  expression  closely  connected  through 
the  organizing  capacity  of  the  central  nerve  system;  it 
keeps  the  intellectual  element  in  the  foreground ;  it  makes 
workers  who  think  as  they  work. 

No  one  would  regard  a  Weymouth  lathe,  with  its  back 
knife  swiftly  and  accurately  turning  out  balusters,  as  a 
suitable  tool  for  a  school  shop  because  a  few  experiences 
in  putting  the  stock  into  the  machine  and  drawing  for- 
ward the  knife  are  all  that  are  required  to  become  an 
operator  of  this  lathe.  The  Weymouth  lathe  or  its  equiv- 
alent is  highly  desirable  as  a  tool  for  production  but  is  a 
total  failure  as  a  means  of  developing  resourcefulness  on 
the  part  of  its  operator. 

It  must  never  be  forgotten,  so  far  as  education 
under  the  age  limitations  of  the  public  school  is  con- 
cerned, that  the  method  and  aims  of  the  commercial  shop 
with  its  automatic  machinery,  its  high  speed  processes  and 
its  "efficiency"  organization,  is  totally  unfit  for  meeting  the 
needs  of  adolescent  pupils  for  the  reason  that  in  such  shops 
production  is  the  all-important  aim,  machines  being  the 


239 

dominating  factor  in  securing  this  production.  Under 
such  circumstances,  men  are  necessarily  relegated  to  the 
position  of  machine  tenders, — human  mechanism  synchro- 
nized with  the  movements  of  the  machines  which  they  are 
required  to  keep  supplied  with  raw  material. 

The  school  shop,  therefore,  must  not  be  equipped,  organ- 
ized or  managed  after  the  manner  of  a  modern,  high-pres- 
sure, commercial  shop. 

Again  and  as  a  corollary  of  the  above,  the  commercial 
shop  cannot  be  made  an  adjunct  of  the  public  school  under 
the  mistaken  notion  that  the  practical  part  of  the  pupil's 
education  can  best  be  given  amid  adult  workmen  under 
expert  foremen  and  on  highly  perfected  machinery  where 
labor  is  so  divided  and  specialized  that  each  man  has  only 
one  small  part  of  a  whole  to  do. 

The  aim  in  education  for  pupils  of  public  school  age  is 
not  to  encourage  premature  automatic  control  of  move- 
ments but  rather  to  secure  the  widest  possible  freedom  on 
the  part  of  each  pupil  in  devising  and  trying  out  reason- 
able ways  of  doing  things.  This  develops  the  power  to 
utilize  whatever  agencies  are  available  in  the  solution  of 
any  problem  that  may  arise. 

This  aim  is  justified  on  the  well-known  psychological 
principle  that  "the  domination  of  habit  means  the  arrest 
of  development,"  which  means  that  motor  activities, — do- 
ing things, — must  be  kept  under  a  high  order  of  brain 
control  thereby  effectualizing  the  distinctly  human  acces- 
sory muscles  of  hand,  wrist,  arm  and  eye  by  tying  them 
up  directly  with  their  corresponding  nerve  endings  within 
the  higher  human  parts  of  the  brain  thereby  delaying  the 
final  stage  of  automatic  control  which  is  a  stage  of  arrested 
development,  a  stage  that  will  come  all  too  soon  at  best. 

To  short  circuit  nerve  control  of  hand  movements  by  an 
early  turning  of  the  inflowing  currents  towards  the  lower 
nerve  centers  is  to  dwarf,  cripple  and  dehumanize  rather 
than  to  develop  and  humanize  the  worker.  The  blighting 
effect  of  such  premature  vocationalization  of  adolescent 


240 

youth  is  perfectly  evident  in  the  dull  eye,  tensionless  body, 
listless  movements  and  prematurely  aged  face  of  the  child 
worker  in  shop  and  factory  where  machines  and  methods 
are  adjusted  to  about  as  high  a  pitch  as  adults  can  endure. 

The  inventive-constructive  instinct  in  the  human  race, 
an  instinct  which  enables  man  to  change  the  crude  natural 
materials  about  him  in  ways  to  better  serve  his  needs, 
"must  have  developed  in  an  environment  where  it  was 
useful,"  and  hence  the  nurture  and  normal  unfolding  of 
that  instinct  in  each  individual  will  best  be  accomplished 
by  a  curriculum  founded  on  construction  with  simple  tools 
and  machines  which  require  a  very  large  outlay  of  human 
nerve  and  muscle  for  their  successful  use.  The  more  brain 
and  muscle  required,  the  greater  the  educative  value.  To 
put  hot  metal  in  a  press  or  drop  forge,  where  the  machine 
itself  predetermines  in  every  detail  what  the  result  will  be, 
requires  little  intelligence  to  start  with  and  develops  none 
in  the  end,  but  a  forge,  anvil,  vise  and  hammer  made  use 
of  in  shaping  the  very  same  useful  article  both  requires  and 
develops  intelligence. 

A  wise  old  chimpanzee  could  probably  be  trained  to  tend 
the  drop  forge  but  not  to  heat,  forge,  temper  and  test  in 
the  blacksmith's  shop. 

It  demands  and  develops  normal  intelligence  to  make  a 
satisfactory  mortise  and  tenon  when  constructing  a  chair 
or  table,  but  a  low-grade  moron  could  be  trained  to  oper- 
ate a  mortising  and  tenoning  machine. 

It  is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable  to  equip  our 
mechanic  arts  shops  with  complicated  and  dangerous  wood- 
working machinery  or  with  highly-specialized,  metal- 
working  machines.  Tools  for  wood,  a  speed  lathe  for  pat- 
tern making,  forge  tools  for  iron,  a  planer,  engine  lathe, 
drill  and  plain  milling  machine  for  the  machine  shop  are 
the  chief  requirements  in  New  Hampshire  school  shops. 
On  these  the  pupil  may  be  taught  to  do  all  of  the  work 
ordinarily  required  in  constructing  useful  projects  that 
are  well  worth  while  and  which  call  for  the  use  of  a  high 
order  of  intelligence  in  their  planning  and  manufacture. 


241 

It  is  a  well-recognized  fact  that  the  all-round  machinist 
who  has  learned  his  trade  in  a  general  repair  shop,  where 
a  great  variety  of  jobs  have  to  be  done  on  comparatively 
few  machines  and  where  human  ingenuity  must  devise 
ways  and  means  for  making  these  machines  serve,  is  the 
most  valuable  man  that  can  be  secured  for  a  real  job  in  a 
manufacturing  plant.  The  same  thing  is  true  in  the  school 
shop, — the  pupil  who  has  had  to  devise,  contrive  and 
scheme  to  get  the  desired  result  may  have  spent  much  time 
in  getting  the  result  but  as  compensation  for  the  extra  time 
he  has  developed  gumption,  that  invaluable  quality  which 
overcomes  obstacles  and  succeeds  in  spite  of  difficulties. 

SHOP  WOOD  WORK  III. 

Aim. 

The  aim  in  this  work  is  to  make  something  of  commer- 
cial value,  that  is,  the  projects  must  be  such  as  would  sat- 
isfy the  requirement  of  the  user  if  it  were  put  on  the 
market  for  sale.  It  must  be  a  real  article  of  use. 

In  making  this,  two  starting  points  are  possible;  (1) 
Something  actually  present  in  the  shop  may  be  reproduced 
item  by  item  with  or  without  drawings,  or  (2)  the. general 
plan  of  the  project  may  be  developed  by  the  pupil  partly 
from  something  he  has  seen  in  use  and  partly  from  his 
own  notion  as  to  what  will  best  serve  the  purpose  he  has 
in  mind. 

In  either  case  it  is  the  teacher's  business  carefully  to  go 
over  the  whole  matter  with  the  pupil,  discussing  with  him 
the  use  to  which  the  finished  product  is  to  be  put,  the  ma- 
terials proposed,  the  methods  of  construction,  finish,  etc., 
and  the  advisability  of  attempting  the  project. 

Much  of  the  educational  significance  of  projects  in  wood 
work  lies  in  the  adaptation  of  the  work  proposed  to  the 
power  and  capacity  of  the  worker  and  there  has  been  quite 
as  much  damage  done  by  under-estimating  the  pupil's 
power  as  by  over-estimating  it. 

16 


242 

Repeating  the  trivial  projects  of  the  elementary  school 
manual  training  has  brought  disrespect  for  high  school 
construction  courses  from  both  pupils  and  public.  A  high 
school  pupil  who  takes  the  mechanic  arts  course  must 
spend  the  time  given  to  shop  work  on  projects  which  are 
worth  while  and  which  are  fully  up  to  the  pupil's  con- 
structive powers,  otherwise  the  shop  becomes  for  that  pupil 
a  place  for  squandering  valuable  time. 

A  whisk-broom  rack  may  be  an  appropriate  project  for 
a  sixth-grade  boy  (it  is  doubtful  if  it  excites  much  enthu- 
siasm in  any  grade)  but  it  is  about  as  poorly  adapted  to 
the  high  school  pupil  as  a  game  of  marbles  must  be  to  a 
star  baseball  player.  A  Morris  chair,  a  substantial  table, 
a  good-sized  tool  chest  or  cabinet,  a  wheelbarrow,  a  violin 
case,  a  music  cabinet,  etc.,  are  useful,  of  good  size,  require 
good  workmanship,  involve  fundamental  principles  of  con- 
struction, need  staining,  filling,  varnishing,  etc.,  and  are 
likely  to  be  wanted  by  part  of  the  class. 

It  may  happen  that  no  two  boys  want  to  make  the  same 
thing  but  it  is  more  likely  that  a  whole  class  will  divide  into 
two  or  three  groups,  each  group  being  interested  in  the 
same  kind  of  project.  However  this  may  be,  the  pupil 
should  really  desire  to  make  the  thing  he  decides  on. 

Standards. 

It  is  not  possible  and  perhaps  not  desirable  that  definite 
requirements  be  established. 

Some  pupils  work  slowly  and  require  twice  as  long  in 
exactly  the  same  construction  as  another  pupil.  Some 
projects  are  very  exacting  and  take  much  time,  while  an- 
other project,  of  equal  worth  when  completed,  requires 
less  work. 

The  real  standards  to  keep  in  mind  are:  (a)  whether  or 
not  the  pupil  is  making  good  use  of  his  time ;  keeping  busy 
and  taking  a  real  interest  in  his  work;  (b)  whether  his 
work  is  as  good  as  he  is  capable  of  doing.  There  must  be 
a  sliding  scale  in  giving  credit  for  work  on  projects  and 


243 

the  teacher  must  know  his  pupils  well  enough  to  mark 
justly  according  to  both  capacity  and  effort. 

In  general,  there  is  too  much  loafing  and  too  little  ac- 
complished in  the  mechanic  arts  shop  and  the  remedy  lies 
in  getting  pupils  to  become  personally  interested  in  doing 
good  work  and  in  getting  a  project  completed  in  order  that 
a  new  one  may  be  undertaken. 

Suggestions. 

It  is  best  at  the  outset  to  have  each  pupil  consider  and 
write  down  a  list  of,  say,  a  half  dozen,  wood-work  projects 
which  he  desires  to  work  on  during  the  year.  These  lists 
will  be  of  great  value  to  the  teacher  in  planning  for  the 
year's  work  and  in  giving  advice  to  individual  pupils. 

CLASS  PROJECTS. 

It  will  usually  be  true  that  the  school  is  in  need  of  a 
great  amount  of  construction  of  various  kinds  which  the 
class  will  be  glad  to  do.  This  work  should  always  be  given 
the  right  of  way,  for  no  work  accomplished  gives  greater 
returns  to  both  school  and  class  than  the  practical  repairs 
and  construction  about  the  building  or  in  working  equip- 
ment. 

DRAWING  III. 

Aim. . 

The  drawing  required  in  this  course  is  to  be  related  to 
the  projects  undertaken.  Drawing  boards,  T-squares, 
dividers,  scale  and  pencil  are  to  be  in  the  shop  ready  at  a 
moment's  notice  to  be  used  whenever  a  detail  of  construc- 
tion needs  to  be  shown  in  a  drawing.  It  is  probable  that 
two  hours  a  week  if  properly  made  use  of  will  give  ample 
experience  for  pupils  to  make  the  working  sketches  and 
drawings  necessary  for  their  own  use  or  to  enable  them  to 
read  drawings  already  made.  The  aim  is  not  to  prepare 
draftsmen  but  to  give  the  ability  to  express  ideas  in  the 


244 

language  of  working  plans  or  to  read  that  language  and 
get  the  ideas  involved. 

There  should  be  no  time  spent  on  tracing  or  inking  until 
towards  the  end  of  the  year  at  which  time  one  or  two  trac- 
ings and  a  few  blue  prints  should  be  made. 

The  drawing  in  this  course  is  purely  supplementary 
to  the  construction  and  must  be  given  by  the  shop  teacher 
in  the  shop  and  at  such  times  as  a  pupil  or  group  of  pupils 
actually  need  the  aid  that  such  drawing  can  give  to  the 
construction  in  hand. 

Standards. 

Every  project  of  importance  must  be  sketched  and  the 
essentials  drawn  to  scale. 

These  are  to  be  pencil  drawings  for  actual  use  and  must 
be  kept  in  portfolios  where  the  inspector  can  readily  see 
them. 

PATTERN  MAKING  AND  MOULDING  WITH  RELATED  WOOD  TURN- 
ING AND  DRAWING.      YEAR  IV. 

PATTERN  MAKING  IV. 

Aim. 

It  is  expected  that  the  course  will  give  pupils  sufficient 
practice  in  pattern  making  to  enable  them  to  understand 
the  more  common  types  of  patterns  and  their  moulding 
requirements  and  possibilities.  To  make  this  course  effec- 
tive all  patterns  made  should  be  for  a  purpose;  that  is, 
they  should  be  made  because  some  project  which  is  being 
undertaken  requires  castings  and  therefore  must,  have 
drawings  made  and  patterns  prepared. 

Under  the  time  limitations  in  school  administration  it 
seems  necessary  to  take  up  pattern  making  in  Year  IV  and 
machine  work  in  Year  V.  Consequently,  projects  requir- 
ing castings  must  be  planned  early  in  Year  IV  so  that  part, 
at  least,  of  the  needed  patterns  can  be  made  and  the  cast- 


245 

ings  procured  ready  for  the  machine  work  early  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

There  is  no  more  excuse  for  "exercises"  in  pattern  work 
than  there  is  for  "joint"  making  in  wood  work  and  the 
traditional  "pipe  joint"  which  is  not  often  needed  and 
almost  never  machined  and  threaded  stands  on  the  same 
false  footing  as  the  dovetail  joint  and  its  kindred  time  and 
interest  killers,  which  the  formalism  of  the  pedagogue  has 
imposed  upon  the  plain,  everyday,  constructive  processes 
whenever  and  wherever  he  has  reluctantly  admitted  these 
as  school  activities.  The  pedagogy  of  the  practical  arts 
can  be  stated  in  a  paragraph  as  follows: 

Select  as  a  project  something  that  is  needed  for  a  defi- 
nite purpose;  construct  this  as  real  workmen  would  do 
with  the  material  and  tools  available;  and  when  it  is  com- 
pleted use  it  as  it  was  designed  to  be  used.  If  it  is  ade- 
quate for  the  purpose,  the  effort  was  successful.  If  not, 
it  must  be  charged  up  as  a  failure. 

Standards. 

Pupils  must  be  able  to  make  mouldable  patterns,  with 
the  necessary  core  boxes,  for  projects  equivalent  to  the 
following,  which  along  with  many  others  have  been  made 
in  New  Hampshire  schools  during  the  last  fifteen  years: 
electric  motor,  one-half  horse  power  or  more,  power  pump, 
speed  lathe,  gas  engine,  jack  screw,  portable  forge,  grinder, 
power  hack-saw,  power  drill,  furnace  grates,  etc. 

MOULDING  IV. 

Aim. 

Pupils  completing  this  course  must  know  how  to  pre- 
pare suitable  flasks  for  any  pattern  which  they  have  made ; 
must  be  able  to  prepare  the  sand,  cores,  and  all  other  ma- 
terials needed  and  must  be  fully  capable  of  going  to  the 
moulding  bench  and  completely  get  a  mould  ready  for  the 
metal.  This  must  include  making  necessary  cores,  baking 
and  putting  them  in  place. 


246 


Standards. 


Standards  are  sufficiently  indicated  above  under  Aim 
with  the  additional  caution  that  inspectors  will  require 
classes  to  demonstrate  this  ability  by  actual  tests  and  the 
teacher  must  know  that  the  moulding  bench  is  ready  for 
use  whenever  such  a  demonstration  is  asked  for. 

Suggestions. 

There  should  be  more  attention  given  to  moulding  and  it 
should  closely  accompany  pattern  making.  Most  of  our 
schools  are  not  equipped  for  handling  all  of  the  class  at 
any  given  time  on  one  particular  type  of  work,  nor  is  it 
desirable  that  they  should  be.  The  class  should  be  free  to 
follow  the  needs  of  the  project  rather  than  tied  down  to 
a  fixed  daily  schedule. 

Whenever  a  pupil  has  need  to  go  to  the  lathe  to  shape 
some  part  of  his  pattern,  that  is  the  time  for  him  to  go 
there.  When  his  pattern  is  ready  for  the  shellac,  the  fin- 
ishing room  is  his  workroom.  If  a  core  box  has  been  made 
he  should  test  it  by  making  and  baking  the  core,  and  when 
all  is  ready  and  the  final  test  of  mouldability  is  to  be  made, 
the  moulding  bench  must  be  put  in  order  and  the  mould 
made.  Such  work  makes  a  minimum  shop  equipment  of 
maximum  educational  efficiency  and  demands  good  class 
and  shop  organization. 

In  addition  to  this,  after  the  pupil  has  "tested  and 
tried."  failed  and  finally  succeeded  in  getting  the  art  of 
moulding  into  his  muscles  as  well  as  mind,  he  should  go 
to  the  foundry  where  his  casting  is  to  be  made  and  observe 
how  practical  moulders  handle  such  work.  In  most  small 
foundries,  such  as  schools  are  likely  to  go  to  for  their  cast- 
ings, it  will  be  easy  to  get  a  small  space  where  each  pupil 
may  finally  make  the  mould  in  which  at  least  one  of  his 
castings  is  to  be  poured. 

Experience  shows  that  it  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  make 
arrangements  and  to  find  foremen  ready  to  assist  and  give 


247 

practical  suggestions.  It  is  stretching  a  good  thing  to  an 
unreasonable  length,  however,  to  assume  that  each  pupil 
ought  to  handle  one  side  of  a  ladle  of  the  melted  iron  used 
in  pouring,  nor  should  he  be  expected  to  help  change  the 
furnace  unless  the  school  has  a  furnace;  in  this  case  it  is 
a  part -of  his  work  just  as  cleaning  up  his  bench  and  wiping 
the  tools  are  a.  part. 

Pattern  making  and  moulding  are  among  the  most 
highty  educative  courses  in  a  mechanic  arts  curriculum  if 
the  patterns  are  contributory  to  worth  while  projects. 
Formalized,  however,  into  stereotyped  "exercises"  and  im- 
aginary "sequences"  these  courses  fall  flat  because  they 
are  without  a  real  motive. 

WOOD  TURNING  IV. 

The  speed  lathe  educationally  considered  is  of  small 
value.  It  trains  hand  and  eye,  to  be  sure,  but  pattern  mak- 
ing with  its  use  of  simple  tools  is  so  much  more  effective 
in  this  regard  that  the  lathe's  contribution  is  almost  negli- 
gible. 

The  lathe  is  merely  a  tool  for  producing  certain  results 
on  wood.  It  is  useful,  therefore,  in  both  cabinet  making 
and  pattern  making  as  a  means  to  a  given  end  within  the 
project. 

There  are  a  few  simple  manipulations  which  the  pupil 
should  rapidly  acquire.  After  this  he  should  use  the 
lathes,  not  to  cover  a  given  amount  of  time  daily  for  a 
prescribed  number  of  weeks  but  rather  to  get  out  certain 
needed  parts  of  circular  cross  section  which  cannot  other- 
wise be  readily  produced. 

The  essential  thing  to  learn  is  the  proper  relation  of 
the  edge  of  the  chisel  to  the  revolving  wood  to  insure  cut- 
ting instead  of  scraping* 

At  least  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  all  pupils  in  our 
mechanic  arts  curriculum  who  for  the  past  five  years  have 
been  "taught"  the  use  of  the  speed  lathe  have  finished  the 
course  without  ever  discovering  the  meaning  of  a  tangen- 


248 

tial  cutting  position  for  either  the  gouge  or  the  skew  chisel. 
They  locate  the  rest  at  or  below  the  level  of  the  lathe 
centers,  hold  the  chisel  nearly  level  and  scrape  away  the 
wood  until  the  edge  of  the  chisel  is  too  rounded  to  even 
scrape. 

This  scraping  process  has  its  place  when  the  parting  tool 
is  used  or  in  bringing  patterns  down  to  exact  measurement 
but  in  roughing  stock  down  to  approximate  dimensions  and 
for  finishing  cuts  other  than  on  patterns  the  lathe  chisel 
is,  or  should  be,  a  cutting  tool,  peeling  off  shavings  in 
ribbon  form  rather  than  grinding  the  wood  away  in  dust. 

The  handle  of  either  gouge  or  skew  chisel  should  be  held 
nearly  or  quite  as  low  as  the  operator's  hip.  This  carries 
the  cutting  edge  high  up  on  the  wood,  cuts  long  shavings 
from  the  wood,  leaves  a  smooth  surface  and  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  keep  chisels  sharp. 

Standards. 

Standards  are  well  indicated  above.  The  lathe  chisel 
must  cut  and  leave  a  smooth  surface  which  requires  little 
or  no  sandpapering. 

There  is  no  excuse  for  turning  useless  "models"  like  the 
pin  tray,  napkin  ring,  goblet,  etc..  on  which  so  much  time 
has  been  wasted.  Either  the  pupil  has  or  has  not  a  project 
in  cabinet  work,  pattern  making  or  other  purposeful  con- 
struction, which  requires  wood  turning.  If  he  has  such 
need,  then  is  the  time  to  show  him  how  to  handle 
that  particular  piece  of  work.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
is  nothing  for  the  wood-turning  lathe  to  do,  let  it  stand 
still.  Do  not  try  to  invent  excuses  for  wood  turning  when 
there  is  so  much  highly  educative  hand  work  in  pattern- 
making,  moulding  and  forging  waiting  for  every  pupil. 

DRAWING  iv. 

What  has  been  said  under  this  head  in  the  wood-working 
course  applies  here  but  in  addition  the  teacher  must  rec- 
ognize the  greater  difficulties  involved  in  reading  drawings 


249 

for  patterns.  This  is  in  part  due  to  cores  and  core  box  mak- 
ing and  in  part  to  the  demands  which  moulding  makes 
upon  the  pattern  maker. 

It  is  hard  to  see  in  the  drawing  all  of  the  special  adapta- 
tions which  must  be  made  to  enable  the  moulder  to  get  the 
pattern  out  of  the  sand.  This  ability  to  read  plans  follows 
and  grows  out  of  the  ability  to  draw  plans  which  in  turn 
comes  from  experience  in  constructing  and  drawing  closely 
combined  as  the  work  progresses. 

This  succession  is  strictly  in  harmony  with  the  origin 
of  the  constructive  and  representative  powers  as  they 
evolved  in  the  race  and  as  they  unfold  in  the  individual. 
Making  things  preceded  making  a  plan  of  something  to  be 
made  and  this  in  turn  preceded  turning  the  plan  over  to  a 
second  individual  to  be  by  him  comprehended  and  the 
thing  constructed. 

Manual  training  in  the  lower  grades  is  mostly  a  matter 
of  direct  reproduction  of  a  thing  known  with  a  little  sketch- 
ing to  overcome  difficulties  as  they  arise.  Wood  work 
in  the  mechanic  arts  curriculum  associates  the  drawing 
very  directly  with  the  project  but  introduces  the  element 
of  planning  ahead  of  construction  thereby  working  out  an 
idea  into  a  picture  or  working  plan  then  producing  the 
thing  in  material  form.  In  pattern  making  the  pupil  will 
need  still  further  to  develop  this  pre-planning,  bringing  in 
more  and  more  detail  until  the  drawing  is  complete 
enough  for  another  workman,  who  does  not  know  what  this 
draftsman  had  in  mind,  to  read  in  the  plans,  elevations, 
sections,  etc.,  the  latter 's  ideas  accurately  enough  to  make 
a  pattern  precisely  such  as  the  draftsman  would  make  if  he 
were  making  his  own  pattern.  This  last  process  of  reading 
a  drawing  is  really  the  ultimate  end  and  aim  of  teaching 
drawing.  It  does  not  require  gfeat  technique  in  draw- 
ing. A  simple  sketch,  with  accurate  measurements  indi- 
cated, may  serve  every  purpose. 


250 

FORGING   IV. 


Aim. 


The  forge  shop  with  its  equipment  of  simple  hand  tools 
is  in  all  respects  the  most  educationally  effective  laboratory 
in  the  whole  range  of  school  activities.  The  reason  is  dis- 
closed in  the  previous  general  discussion  of  aims,  namely, 
the  lack  of  complicated  machines  which  supplant  human 
thinking  and  the  use  of  just  such  hand  tools  as  primitive 
man  used  to  hammer  and  cut  and  burn  his  way  onward 
through  an  adverse,  antagonistic  environment. 

Pre-man's  first  move  towards  the  human  was  when  he 
augmented  the  power  of  his  hand  with  a  stone  hammer; 
his  next  was  when  he  developed  this  hammer  into  a  stone 
cutting  tool ;  his  next  was  when  he  discovered  the  useful- 
ness of  fire.  Much  later  he  discovered  ways  of  extracting 
and  using  metals  so  that  his  stone  axe,  hammer,  chisel, 
knife,  spear,  etc.,  became  metal  tools.  Hence  it  is  that  our 
constructive  instincts,  which  are  the  results  of  these  prim- 
itive utilizations  of  nature's  materials  and  forces,  are  best 
nurtured  and  developed  by  activities  closely  related  to  these 
early  ones.  Nor  can  the  recent  inventions  of  civilized  men 
ever  take  the  places  of  the  simple  hand  tools  jn  bringing 
mind  and  muscle  of  adolescent  pupils  into  adjustment. 

Fill  the  school  shop  with  steam  hammers,  drop  forges, 
moulding  machines  and  presses,  mortise  and  tenoning  ma- 
chines, turret  lathes,  automatic  screw  cutting  lathes,  sur- 
faces and  moulders,  etc.,  and  its  usefulness  in  education 
would  approach  zero.  Such  a  shop  would  serve  chiefly 
to  train,  not  to  educate,  automatic  human  machines  to  be 
coupled  up  with  automatic  shop  devices  and  would  un- 
questionably aid  bolshevism  and  hinder  Americanization. 

Standards. 

There  should  be  very  little,  if  any,  forging  apart  from 
projects.  The  twisted  hasp,  staple,  unused  link,  the  rod 
headed,  but  headed  for  no  purpose, — the  whole  wall  case 


251 

full  of  "models"  which  the  instructor  brought  home  from 
college,  together  with  his  herbarium  and  insect  collection, 
is  pitiful  proof  of  the  inadequacy  of  the  higher  educa- 
tion as  a  preparation  for  teaching  high  school  pupils  how 
to  do  things.  The  teacher  of  athletics  alone  comes  from 
his  college  training  filled  with  the  notion  that  the  way  to 
teach  boys  how  to  accomplish  results  is  to  show  them  how 
to  do  a  thing  and  then  never  quit  until  they  can  do  it  as 
well  as  he  or  better. 

Most  forging  projects  connect  up  with  something  that  is 
being  made  in  the  wood  or  iron-working  shop.  To  iron  a 
sled  or  sleigh,  a  cart  or  wagon  body;  to  make  bolts  for 
planer  or  milling  machine  bed ;  to  forge  and  temper  lathe 
and  planer  tools,  or  make  chisels  and  parting  tools  for  the 
speed  lathe ;  to  mend  broken  chains,  rods,  bars  and  braces ; 
to  sharpen  and  temper  stone  drills;  to  forge  cold  chisels, 
reface  hammers,  make  punches,  etc., — these  are  the  types 
of  work  which  a  well-planned  course  in  forging  will  pro- 
vide. 

Pupils  must  leave  the  course  knowing  how  to  temper 
steel  for  various  uses,  how  to  weld  iron  or  iron  and  steel 
and  how  to  case  harden  and  anneal. 

There  is  no  time  for  chipping  and  filing  unless  some 
piece  of  useful  work  requires  it. 

MACHINE    SHOP    PRACTICE   V. 

Aim. 

The  aim  is  to  construct  projects  of  real  use  *and  value 
which  require  in  their  making  the  use  of  engine  lathes, 
planer  or  shaper,  drill,  grinder,  etc. 

Facility  in  the  use  of  these  machine-shop  tools  is  to  be 
acquired  through  using  them  in  shaping  the  metal  parts 
of  projects. 

Here  again,  as  in  Household  Appliances  or  Farm  Tools, 
the  structure  of  the  tool  and  the  function  of  its  parts  is 


252 

'    }  i-  :'  '    •'  ' 
not  the  aim.     These  things  will  be  learned  as  the  machine 

is  used  in  the  process  of  making  things. 

How  to  turn  a  true  cylinder,  or  taper,  how  to  surface  a 
metal  disk,  face  a  pulley,  cut  a  thread,  bore  a  cylinder,  is 
most  economically  and  effectively  taught  when  the  part 
operated  on  is  known  to  belong  to  some  previously  planned 
project  requiring  certain  exact  dimensions  and  the  fine 
adjustment  of  the  lathe  or  grinder  essential  to  producing 
the  desired  result  becomes  a  serious  matter  with  the  pupil 
because  he  wants  the  project  to  stand  the  test  of  use. 

If  an  electric  motor  is  being  made  it  must,  when  com- 
pleted, show  an  efficiency  at  least  equal  to  that  of  motors 
put  on  the  market  by  commercial  manufacturers. 

A  school-constructed  gas  engine  must  develop  power  as 
economically  as  similar  engines  from  commercial  shops. 
These  are  real  motives  for  painstaking,  accurate  work. 

APPLIED  SCIENCE. 

Again  the  aim  in  a  mechanic  arts  course  is  to  teach 
science  in  its  applied  forms.  The  pupil  does  not  learn 
numerous  laws  relating  to  the  flow  of  currents  of  electric- 
ity, of  magnetic  fields,  or  memorize  formulas;  he  does, 
however,  construct  a  motor  or  generator  according  to  pre- 
pared plans  and  in  the  process  of  winding,  insulating,  con- 
necting, adjusting  and  testing  he  discovers  many  facts 
relating  to  the  direction  in  which  the  coils  must  lead,  the 
amount  of  wire  needed,  the  complete  insulation  necessary, 
the  accurate  adjustment  of  the  shaft  and  bearings,  etc. 

In  forging  and  tempering  tools  for  lathe,  planer 
and  drill  he  discovers  many  facts  relating  to  the  physi- 
cal properties  of  steel  under  different  treatments. 

There  are  many  applications  of  mathematics,  physics 
and  mechanics  which  give  the  pupil  a  retainable  grasp  on 
the  principles  involved.  This  is  the  inventive-creative  age 
for  boys  and  the  constructive  activities  should  recognize 
and  appeal  to  these  instinctive  tendencies. 


253 

Standards. 

Standards  are  so  closely  tied  up  with  the  kind  of  projects 
that  definite  requirements  cannot  be  stated.  A  degree  of 
accuracy  and  finish,  satisfactory  when  making  a  jackscrew, 
would  not  be  passable  on  parts  of  a  gas  engine  or  electric 
motor.  The  standard  of  workmanship  must  conform  to 
the  accepted  practice  of  good  shops,  on  similar  grades  of 
work,  and  this  the  teacher  must  know  from  actual  experi- 
ence in  commercial  shops.  This  is  why  the  Federal  Board 
for  Vocational  Education  insists  upon  two  years  of  actual 
shop  experience  for  all  teachers  of  shop  subjects. 

Now,  while  numerical  standards  cannot  be  established 
either  as  to  quantity  or  quality  of  work,  it  is  nevertheless 
true  that  the  State  Department,  through  its  inspectors,  will 
insist  upon  a  reasonable  output  of  projects  of  really  supe- 
rior quality. 

A  reasonable  output  is  one  that  keeps  interested  pupils 
busy  during  the  shop  hours  and  any  inspector  or  even  the 
casual  observer  can  readily  determine  whether  this  is  the 
case  or  not. 

RECORDS. 

Some  form  of  card  project  record  must  be  kept,  showing 
the  number  of  hours  each  pupil  has  put  on  a  given  project, 
and  this  should  indicate  in  a  general  way  the  kind  of 
work,  e.  g.,  lathe  work,  drilling,  planer  work,  hand  work, 
assembly,  testing,  etc. 

The  project  card  can  be  best  made  up  from  an  individual 
pupil  card  where,  day  by  day,  each  pupil  furnishes  the 
data  of  his  own  labor. 

The  class  in  shop  management,  if  there  is  such,  or  if  not, 
each  class  during  some  definite  periods  devoted  to  shop 
management,  should  prepare  plans  for  these  records  and 
devise  ways  of  keeping  them. 

Inspectors  will  call  for  card  or  other  records  which  will 
be  sufficiently  definite  for  them  to  determine  just  what 


254 

each  pupil  has  had  in  way  of  experience  on  each  machine 
in  the  shop  or  in  other  processes  involved  in  the  construc- 
tion of  projects. 

STOCK  RECORDS. 

It  is  desirable  to  know  accurately  the  cost  of  the  mate- 
rials which  enter  into  a  project  and  also  to  know  what 
supply  of  materials  are  on  hand  in  the  shop. 

The  project  record  should  show  the  former  and  the  stock 
record  the  latter. 

There  should  be  an  inventory  of  tools  and  stock  at  the 
end  or  beginning  of  each  term  and  a  record  of  each  kept  in 
permanent  form. 

Suggestions. 

Suggestions  have  been  freely  given  already  but  a  rein- 
forcement of  those  relating  to  projects  is  needed. 

The  teacher  must  recognize  the  continuity  of  Years  IV 
and  V.  Many  of  the  pattern-making  projects  in  Year  IV 
must  be  continued  and  the  castings  machined  and  assem- 
bled. These  projects  follow  the  class.  There  are  others, 
however,  which  may  become  interclass  projects;  for  ex- 
ample, it  may  be  decided  to  make  a  forge  for  the  black- 
smith shop  or  a  power  drill  for  the  machine  shop.  Now 
the  plans  may  originate  with  the  senior  class;  the  patterns 
may  be  made  by  sophomores,  juniors  and  seniors  by  select- 
ing according  to  the  difficulties  involved;  the  lathe  and 
planer  work  may  be  either  junior  or  senior  jobs;  the  gear 
cutting,  grinding  and  fine  work  on  bearings,  etc.,  may  be 
given  to  the  seniors  as  will  most  of  the  assembling.  In  this 
way  the  three  classes  become  one,  so  far  as  this  project  is 
concerned. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  an  occasional  rush  job  be 
planned.  Let  us  assume  that  the  janitor  needs  a  barrel 
truck  for  wheeling  out  the  ash  cans  and  wants  it  within 
a  day  or  two.  The  wood  is  in  the  plank,  the  straps  and 


255 

rods  are  in  bars,  the  wheels  and  boxes  are  yet  in  the  form 
of  pig  iron  at  the  foundry. 

Here  is  work  for  the  four  classes.  Let  a  senior  make  a 
sketch  with  dimensions  for  the  wood  work,  another  senior 
or  a  junior  may  draw  a  working  plan  for  the  wheels  and 
yet  another  pupil  sketches  the  bearings  or  shoe.  Within 
an  hour  freshmen  may  be  ripping  out  the  frame;  sopho- 
mores heading  and  threading  the  rods;  a  junior  may  be 
turning  the  bearings  011  the  axle  and  in  two  hours  the  pat- 
tern may  be  under  way  and  every  part  in  process  of  con- 
struction. When  patterns  are  ready  a  pupil  or  group  may 
go  to  the  foundry  and  mould  them  so  that  quite  likely  at 
the  end  of  one  day  the  foundry  will  have  poured  the  cast- 
ings. Drilling,  machining,  glueing  up  the  frame,  ironing 
and  finally  painting  the  iron  and  shellacing  the  whole  may 
keep  parts  of  four  classes  busy  for  whatever  time  is  nec- 
essary. It  is  often  a  revelation  to  the  teacher  to  discover 
how  much  work  can  be  accomplished  under  the  stress  of 
unusual  interest. 

A  new  change  gear  for  a  lathe  can  be  made  another 
rush  job,  as  can  also  making  and  ironing  a  set  of  whipple- 
trees,  building  a  wheelbarrow,  double  runner,  etc. 

These  are  special  projects  that  enliven  and  make  real 
the  activities  of  the  school  shop  but,  like  spice  in  food, 
too  much  is  quite  as  bad  as  none  at  all. 

PROJECT  POSSIBILITIES. 

The  only  limitations  on  size  and  complexity  of  school- 
shop  projects  are:  (a)  the  mechanical  equipment  of  the 
shop,  (b)  the  experience  and  ability  of  the  teacher,  and 
(c)  the  expense  involved.  With  shops  equipped  as  re- 
quired in  New  Hampshire  an  engine  lathe  or  planer  of 
small  size  or  a  twenty-inch,  back-geared  drill  could  be 
built. 

A  ten-horse  power  gas  engine  or  a«  five-horse  power  elec- 
tric motor  or  generator  is  easily  possible.  Speed  lathes, 


256 

complete  with  counter  shaft,  grinders  of  various  kinds, 
vacuum  cleaners,  portable  forges,  delivery  wagons  or 
sleighs,  a  two-horse  farm  wagon  or  set  of  sleds,  hand  or 
power  pumps  and,  as  a  sort  of  masterpiece  in  correlation 
with  the  electrical  construction  course,  a  self-contained 
electric  generating  house-lighting,  water-pumping  power 
plant  complete  from  kerosene  engine  to  storage  battery  and 
motors  and  pumps, — all  of  these  and  many  others  are  rea- 
sonable possibilities.  It  only  requires  a  competent,  cour- 
ageous, industrious  teacher  to  manage  it  all.  The  pupils 
have  abundant  mental  and  manipulative  capacity  for  such 
work.  It  only  needs  developing  into  power. 

ELECTRICAL  CONSTRUCTION  V. 

Aim. 

This  is  not  a  course  in  the  theory  of  electricity.  It  can- 
not be  taught  in  a  physics  laboratory  and  no  textbook  has 
yet  even  attempted  to  cover  such  a  course. 

The  work  starts  with  actual  construction  of: 

(a)  Devices    for   generating   electricity,    primary   bat- 
teries, magnetos,  dynamos. 

(b)  Devices  for   conducting,   insulating,   transforming 
and  rectifying  the  current  generated. 

(c)  Electric  bells,  motors,  electro-plating  apparatus  for 
using  the  current. 

(d)  Storage  batteries  for  holding  the  current  for  future 
use. 

(e)  House  wiring  in  its  commercial  aspects. 

Standards. 

Institute  Circular  No.  96  gives  the  requirements  for 
this  course  with  a  detailed  outline  for  the  guidance  of 
teachers. 

Suggestions. 

t 

It  requires  a  teacher  who  has  had  experience  in  shops 
where  electrical  machinery  and  devices  are  made  and  who 


257 

is  willing  to  teach  boys  how  to  stand  at  the  bench  and  do 
things  rather  than  sit  in  classroom  seats  and  hear  lectures 
about  how  things  ought  to  be  done. 

The  theory  of  electricity,  so  far  as  entered  into,  is  a  sec- 
ondary matter  and  crops  out  from  time  to  time  after  a 
device  is  constructed  or  is  in  process  of  construction  and 
it  only  appears  here  because  of  its  technological  bearing 
upon  the  way  the  machine  or  device  operates  or  responds 
to  the  current  or  the  current  develops  from  the  mechanism. 

STEAM  FITTING  V  (OPTIONAL  WITH  ELECTRICAL 
CONSTRUCTION). 

Steam  fitting  vocationally  offers  excellent  opportunities 
for  employment  and  it  also  has  a  relatively  high  educa- 
tional value. 

The  aim  is  to  make  the  course  distinctly  constructional 
and  it  must  deal  with  actual  steam-heating  projects. 

Standards. 

Circular  No.  97  outlines  a  definite  course  and  suggests 
ways  and  means  for  making  it  both  vocational  and  educa- 
tional. 

The  standards  are  qualitative,  chiefly,  since  definite 
amounts  of  work  are  hard  to  specify.  The  projects  must 
be  real  and  the  related  mathematics  and  physics  must  cen- 
ter about  the  project  and  not  wander  off  into  the  field  of 
formal  science. 

Teach  as  much  mathematics  and  physics  -as  is  useful  to 
the  steam  fitter  and  makes  him  an  intelligent  worker,  able 
to  plan  and  lay  out  jobs  as  well  as  to  fit  and  erect. 

Suggestions. 

See  Circular  No.  97. 

APPLIED   PHYSICS   V. 

In  the  mechanic  arts  curriculum  the  t  constructional 
courses  in  forging,  machine  work,  electrical  construction 

n 


258 

and  steam  fitting  constantly  bring  to  the  surface  funda- 
mental principles  in  physics  but  always  in  their  technolog- 
ical aspect.  It  is  desirable  that  these  everyday  shop  ex- 
periences be  organized  in  the  pupil 's  mind  but  it  is  futile 
to  attempt  this  through  the  traditional  textbook  and  lab- 
oratory course  in  physics  with  its  logical  or  historical 
treatment  of  physical  phenomena. 

The  pupil  who  is  wrestling  with  the  problem  of  building 
a  transformer  discovers  that  the  wires  which  lead  into  these 
devices  have  no  actual  material  connection  with  the  wires 
which  lead  out  and  yet  currents  get  through  in  some  way 
and  may  be  changed  very  materially  in  voltage.  Any  alert 
human  being  wants  to  know  the  reason  for  this.  It  is  just 
the  time  to  look  into  the  matter  of  induction  and  to  work 
out  experimentally,  or  otherwise,  the  conditions  which 
control  these  changes. 

In  constructing  generators  or  motors,  Ohm 's  law,  Lenz  's 
law  and  other  important  principles  governing  the  behavior 
of  electrical  currents  are  involved  in  winding  the  coils. 
Now  when  the  pupil  is  actually  wiring  a  motor  the  signifi- 
cance of  these  laws  can  be .  understood,  hence  these  related 
parts  of  physics  should  be  taken  up  in  the  shop  as  the 
wiring  progresses.  In  annealing  and  hardening  steel  the 
magnetic  properties  of  this  metal  determine  the  optimum 
temperature  at  which  to  quench,  therefore  at  the  forge, 
when  hardening  a  lathe  tool  or  softening  an  arbor  blank,  is 
the  place  and  time  for  demonstrating  the  value  of  this 
fact  of  science.. 

It  will  be  seen  that  much  of  this  course  in  physics  has 
to  do  with  the  heat  treatment  of  steel,  which  involves  the 
molar  and  molecular  properties  of  iron. — with  the  strength 
and  conductivity  of  metals  and  in  general  with  energy  as 
manifested  in  heat  and  electricity  but  always  with  the 
practical  applications  uppermost  in  the  pupil's  mind. 


259 

INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY    V. 

Aim. 

This  is  a  "related  subject"  course  and  designed  to  give 
the  pupil  an  intelligent  comprehension  of  the  development 
of  the  mechanical  industries,  their  tools  and  materials  and 
their  relation  to  human  welfare. 

Standards. 

The  course  should  be  one  of  investigation  rather  than 
one  in  which  the  condensed  information  of  some  text  is 
accepted  as  final.  Topics  should  be  assigned  and  reading 
references  given  so  that  the  class  can  gather  ideas  from  a 
variety  of  sources  and  organize  these  ideas  into  conclusions 
that  are  their  own. 

MACHINE    WORK   VI. 

Aim. 

There  is  nothing  particularly  new  in  the  general  aim  this 
year.  New  machines,  especially  the  milling  machine,  are 
used  and  the  projects  are  developed  to  correspond  with  the 
new  possibilities  of  the  shop  and  increased  power  of  the 
pupil. 

Pupils  should  go  out  from  this  closing  year  fairly  fa- 
miliar with  the  fundamental  processes  of  wood  and  iron 
working.  They  should  feel  competent  and  at  ease  when 
planning  and  executing  a  piece  of  work  on  lathe,  planer 
or  milling  machine  but  there  should  be  no  serious  attempt 
at  securing  rapidity.  To  be  able  to  do  the  job  well  is  the 
important  thing.  Speeding  up  at  this  age  means  a  poor 
quality  of  work.  Speed  comes  later. 

Machine  shop  managers  want  these  boys  to  come  from 
the  school  able  to  do  "  head  work ' '  as  well  as  to  manipulate 
a  machine.  If  he  can  mount  the  work  in  the  machine  in- 
telligently, adjust  the  tools  properly  and  work  to  plan  and 


260 

measurement,  the  particular  degree  of  efficiency  required 
in  the  shop  will  be  shown  him  as  he  gets  accustomed  to  his 
job. 

Standards. 

To  turn  out  jobs  of  good  workmanship. 

To  be  "ingenious"  in  devising  ways  and  means. 

To  keep  machine  and  tools  in  good  working  order. 

To  know  how  to  read  and  follow  drawings. 

To  follow  instructions  cheerfully  when  instructions  are 
given. 

To  be  able  to  explain  just  what  is  being  done  and  why. 

These  are  some  of  the  important  things. 

In  addition,  the  elements  of  shop  organization  and  man- 
agement should  be  taught  and  whenever  possible  pupils 
should  be  selected  to  assume  the  responsibility  for  manag- 
ing the  work  on  some  definite  project. 

There  can  be  no  make-believe  or  make-shift  projects  in 
this  course.  Everything  undertaken  must  be  of  "commer- 
cial use  and  value." 

Projects  must  be  difficult  enough  to  tax  the  capacity  of 
the  shop  and  the  powers  of  the  pupil  well  up  to  their  limit. 

Pupils  of  this  age  are  capable  of  doing  a  man-sized 
job  in  man  fashion  so  far  as  quality  is  concerned  and  they 
are  making  their  final  adult  adjustments  and  are,  there- 
fore, forming  permanent  motor  habits  of  the  accessory 
organs.  These  habits  must  be  right  so  far  as  quality  goes 
and  to  insure  this  quantity  production  must  be  kept  some- 
what in  the  background. 

MECHANICS   AND    MECHANISMS   VI. 

Aim. 

This  related  course  aims  to  insure  a  working  knowledge 
of  certain  natural  phenomena  resulting  from  gravitation 
chiefly:  motion,  velocity,  force,  mass,  work,  power,  energy, 
friction,  etc.,  are  the  fundamentals  of  this  science.  But 


261 

in  this  it  is  the  applied  rather  than  "pure"  science  that 
must  be  taught. 

Power  evolution  and  transmission  involves  a  knowledge 
of  engines,  motors,  etc.,  of  pulleys,  belts,  gears,  sprockets 
and  chains. 

The  amount  of  horse  power  generated  or  transmitted  or 
used  up  by  machines  of  various  kinds  is  a  subject  for  prac- 
tical investigation. 

How  wide  a  belt  is  required  to  run  a  given  main  shaft 
with  its  accompanying  machines  ?  Does  the  velocity  of  the 
belt  have  anything  to  do  with  this  answer  ? 

What  size  of  pulleys  is  required  to  get  certain  speeds 
of  lathes  starting  from  a  given  motor  pulley? 

How  long  must  a  belt  be  to  connect  pulleys  of  certain 
sizes  whose  centers  are  a  known  distance  apart  ? 

What  is  the  surface  speed  of  varying  sized  cylinders  ac- 
tually to  be  turned  in  the  engine  lathe  ? 

What  must  be  the  size  of  cone  pulleys  to  get  certain 
speeds  for  wood  turning  and  yet  make  use  of  a  belt  of 
constant  length? 

How  are  gears  to  be  proportioned  to  get  certain  definite 
results  ? 

These  are  types  of  questions  to  be  answered  by  this 
course. 

It  involves  mathematics,  laboratory  experiments,  draw- 
ing, designing  and  actual  measurements,  tests  and  compu- 
tations in  the  school  shop  as  well  as  data  obtained  from 
shops,  factories,  and  power  plants  outside. 

SHOP   MATHEMATICS. 

This  course  can  be  included  within  the  time  set  apart 
for  mechanics  or  it  can  be  made  a  unit  course  in  itself.  It 
must  be  a  course  in  which  mathematics  is  applied  to  shop 
work  and  shop  equipment;  It  must  include  arithmetic,  al: 
gebra,  trigonometry  and  geometry  and  may  very  properly 
be  extended  to  include  the  elements  of  calculus. 


262 


APPENDIX  A. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY, — EDUCATION  AND  PSYCHOLOGY. 


School  Administration. 

*Public    School    Administration Cubberly.  H.  M. 

Administration    of    Public    Education  Button  &  Snedden. 

in    U.     S Mac. 

Classroom   Management Bagley.  Mac. 

*Educational     Administration Strayer  &  Thorndike. 

Mac. 

*Administration    of    Educ.    in    a    De- 
mocracy       Hollister.  Scrib. 

Management    of    City    Schools Perry.  Mac. 

*High    School    Administration Hollister.  Heath. 

*  Summary  of  the   Cleveland   Survey.  .  Avers. 

Rural    School    Management Wilkinson.  Silver. 

School    and    Class   Management Arnold.  Mac. 

The  Curriculum Bobbitt.  H.  M. 

*Classroom  Organization  and  Control.  Sears.  H.  M. 

*The  Discipline  of  the  School Morehouse.  Heath. 

Secondary  Education. 

The   American    High    School Brown.  Mac. 

Principles    of    Secondary    Education.  Monroe.  Mac. 

Secondary     Education Inglis.  H.  M. 

*Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools.  Parker.  Ginn. 

Psychology      of      the      High      School 

Branches Judd.  Ginn. 

*An     Introduction     to     High     School  t 

Teaching Colvin.  Mac. 

*The    Educative    Process Bagley.  Mac. 

Supervised  Study Hall-Quest.  Mac. 

High    School    Education Johnson  &  Others.  Scrib. 

Problems    of    Secondary   Education .  .  Snedden.  H.  M. 

*High   School  and  Class  Management.  Hollister.  Heath. 

Elementary  Education. 

Elementary     Education Keith.  Scott    For. 

*Psychology  of  the  Common  Branches.  Freeman.  H.  M. 

*How    to    Teach Strayer  &  Norsworthy. 

Mac. 

Types    of    Teaching Earhart.  H.  M. 

How     to     Teach     the     Fundamental 

Subjects Kendall  &  Mirick.  H.  M 

Socializing    the    Child Dynes.  Silver 

The  Rural  Teacher  and  His  Work..  Foght.  Mac. 

*  Motivation   of  School   Work Wilson.  H.  M*. 

Classroom  Management  and  Methods.  Betts.  Bobbs    Merrill. 


263 


History  of  Education. 


*History   of   Education   in   the    United 

States Dexter.  Mac. 

*A   Student's   History   of   Education.  .  Graves.  Mac. 

*History    of    Education    (3   vols.) Graves.  Mac. 

*Encyclopedia  of  Education    (5  vols.).  Monroe.  Mac. 
Brief   Course    in   the   History   of    Ed- 
ucation   Monroe.  Mac. 

A  Text  Book  in  the  History  of  Edu- 
cation   Monroe.  Mac. 

Principles  and  Philosophy  of  Education. 

The    Vitalized    School Pearson.  Mac. 

*The   Teacher   and  the   School Colgrove.  Scrib. 

*The    Teacher's    Philosophy Hyde.  H.  M. 

*The  Ideal  Teacher Palmer,  H.  M. 

What    is    Education Moore.  Ginn. 

*Democracy    and    Education Dewey.  Mac. 

Textbook    in   the    Principles    of    Edu- 
cation   Henderson.  Mac. 

Education  for  the  Needs  of  Life.  .  .  .  Miller.  Mac. 

Schools     of     Tomorrow Dewey.  Dutton. 

*Principles   of   Education Bolton.  Scrib. 

*Principles   of   Educational   Practice..  Klapper.  Appleton. 

Principles    of   Education Ruediger.  H.  M. 

Educational  Sociology. 

Introduction    to    Educational    Sociol- 
ogy   Smith.  H.  M. 

The  School   as  a   Social   Institution.  .  Robbins.  Allyn. 

*Education    and   Industrial    Evolution.  Carlton. 

*  Social  Development  and  Education.  .  O'Shea.  H.  M. 

Social    Principles    of    Education....  Betts.  Scrib. 

Measurements. 

Mental    and    Physical    Growth Terman.  H.    M. 

*The    Measurement   of   Intelligence...  Terman.  H.    M. 

*Educational  Tests  and  Measurements.  Monroe,  DeVoss,  Kelly. 

H.   M. 

*Measuring    the    Results    of    Teaching.  Monroe.  H.    M. 
Statistical    Methods    Applied    to    Edu- 
cation   Rugff.  H.    M. 

Educational     Measurements Starch.  Mac. 

The     Scientific     Meas.     of     Classroom 

Products Chapman  &  Rush.  Silver. 

*Methods    and     Standards     for    Local 

School     Surveys Bliss.  Heftth. 

Measuring    the    "Work    of    the    Public 

Schools Judd.  Cleveland  Survey. 

Measurement   of   Teaching   Efficiency.  Arnold.  S.    Mandel. 
*Introduction    to    the    Scientific    Study 

of    Education judd.  Ginn 


264 


School  Hygiene. 


*  School     Hygiene Dresslar.  Mac. 

*Health    Work    in    the    Schools Hoag  &  Terman.      H.    M. 

School    Hygiene Shaw.  Mac. 

*Hygiene    of    the    School    Child Terman.  H.    M. 

*Growth   and  Education Tyler.  H.    M. 

*Play  and  Recreation Curtis.  Ginn. 

*Healthful     Schools Ayers,  Williams,  Wood. 

H.    M. 


Vocational  Education. 


Leavitt. 
Brewer. 
Bloomfield. 


*Examples    of    Industrial    Education.. 

*The   Vocational    Guidance   Movement. 

Readings    in    Vocational    Guidance.  . 

Twenty-fifth     Annual    Report    of    the 

U."  S.    Commr.    of    Labor— 1910. 

Vocational    Education    of    Girls    and 

Women Leake. 

Vocational    and   Moral    Guidance.  .  Davis. 


Ginn. 

Mac. 

GiF.n. 


Mac. 
Ginn. 


Prevocational   Education.. 


Leavitt  &  Brown.    H.    M. 


Psychology. 


*Essentials    of    Psychology Pillshury.  Mac. 

How  We  Think Dewey.  Heath. 

*  Outlines    of    Educational    Psychology.  Pyle.  Warwick  &  York. 
*Educational     Psychology,   —   Briefer 

Course Thorndike.  Col.    U.    Press. 

*  Youth,    Its    Education,    Regimen   and 

Hygiene Hall.  Appleton. 

The    Learning   Process Colvin.  Mac. 

How  to  Use  Your  Mind Kitson.  Lippincott. 

Introduction    to    Child    Psychology.  .  Waddle.  H.    M. 


The  two  following  books  consist  of  about  thirty  pages 
each,  but  are  invaluable  for  teachers  who  wish  to  aid  pupils 
to  learn  how  to  study.  They  should  be  read  by  every  high 
school  teacher. 


''How    to     Study    Effectively 

^Training    Pupils    to    Study.. 


Whipple. 
Wilson. 


Public     School 
Pub.    Co., 
Bloomington,     111. 
Warwick  &  York. 


The  starred  titles  indicate  works  which  the  compiler  of 
the  above  ^bibliography  thinks  most  valuable  for  the  busy 
teacher  or  superintendent  or  for  the  one  who  must  pur- 
chase his  own  books. 


265 

APPENDIX  B. 

THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 
INTRODUCTION  ( IMPRESSION  )  . 

The  Art  of  Teaching  Stated  in  General  Terms. 

Herbart's  "five  formal  steps  in  teaching"  need  defor- 
malizing  and  restating  in  order  that  they  may  become  more 
a  matter  of  understanding  and  less  a  matter  of  rule-of- 
thumb  with  teachers.  Practical  pedagogy  is  coming  more 
and  more  into  harmony  with  biological  facts  and  its  prin- 
ciples need  re-examining  in  the  light  of  these  facts. 

Fundamental  Properties  of  Living  Matter. 

There  are  three  primordial  properties  of  living  pro- 
toplasm, namely,  sensitivity,  conductivity  and  contractility. 
In  the  simplest  forms  of  animal  life  these  properties  are 
diffused  throughout  the  substance  of  the  cell  (study  the 
reactions  of  the  amoeba).  As  higher  forms  of  life  appear 
groups  of  cells  or  special  organs  become  differentiated  and 
set  apart  for  (a)  receiving  external  impressions  (the  ef- 
fect of  contact  with  environment),  (b)  conducting  and 
modifying  such  impressions  within  the  organism  and  (c) 
contracting,  or  securing  movement,  in  ways  favorable  to 
the  well-being  of  the  organism  (reaction  to  environment), 
(b)  means  adjustment;  (c)  means  adaptation.  Hence  we 
have  (1)  sense  organs:  (cilia,  tentacles,  antennae,  eyes, 
ears,  etc.)  ;  (2)  conducting  tissues:  (nerve  cells  and  fibres, 
nerve  centers,  etc.);  (3)  contracting  tissues:  (muscles). 
These  three  original  properties  of  protoplasm  are  the  basic 
factors  determining  the  way  in  which  any  animal,  from 
amoeba  to  man,  responds  to  the  influence  of  environment. 
In  one-celled  animals  (the  protozoa)  all  of  the  functions 
of  movement  essential  to  survival  and  reproduction  are 


266 


general  properties  of  the  protoplasm,  whereas  in  many- 
celled  animals  these  functions  are  more  or  less  separated 
and  performed  by  groups  of  cells  which  are  called  organs, 
e.  g.,  the  eye,  the  optic  nerve,  the  biceps  muscles,  etc. 

Concretely  restated  this  means  that  the  environment  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  conies  into  contact  with  a  living  ani- 
mal (impression).  The  comfort,  safety  or  even  survival 
of  this  animal  depends  upon  its  reaction  (behavior)  with 
respect  to  this  particular  environmental  influence,  but 
that  part  of  the  animal  receiving  the  impression  (the 
cilia  of  the  paramecium,  the  tentacle  of  the  hydra,  the 
antennae  of  the  lobster,  the  eye  of  man,  etc.)  is  generally 
not  the  part  which  can  so  act  as  to  favor  escape  from 
danger  or  to  assist  in  securing  food  or  otherwise  to  re- 
spond in  beneficial  ways,  hence  the  immediate  effect  of 
impression  must  be  conducted  to  such  organs  or  parts  as 
are  capable  of  making  an  appropriate  response.  This  con- 
duction in  many-celled  animals  is  by  means  of  nerve  cells 
or  tissues  or  equivalent  organs. 

It  is  not  enough,  however,  merely  to  conduct  the  effects 
of  impression,  the  message  must  be  brought  into  organ- 
ized, meaningful  relationship  to  the  animal  as  an  organism 
in  order  that  the  contractile  tissues  (muscles)  may  give 
expression  to  movements  which  are  appropriate  and  nec- 
essary. 

The  following  schematic  statement  will  help  to  fix  the 
points  above  briefly  stated: 


Properties  of  Living  Protoplasm. 

Sensitivity. 

Conductivity. 

Contractility. 

Differentiated  tissues   and 
organs  in   higher  animals. 

Sense  organs. 

Nerve   cells 
and  fibres. 
Nerve  centers. 

Muscles. 

Environmental  relationship 
and  reaction  of  the  organism. 

Sensation. 

Transmission. 

Movement. 

Pedagogical  equivalents. 

Impression. 

Organization. 

Expression. 

Prest.  Eliot's  descriptive  defi- 
nition of  the  educative  process. 

"To  observe 
accurately, 

to  group,  com- 
pare, relate,  to 
infer  justly  and 

express 
cogently." 

267 

ARGUMENT     (  ORGANIZATION  )  . 

The  General  Principle  Involved  in  Experience  and  Habit. 

The  higher  animal  organisms  through  experience  acquire 
the  general  habit  of  reacting  to  environment  in  ways  favor- 
able to  well-being,  otherwise  through  the  "elimination  of 
the  unfit,"  they  sooner  or  later  cease  to  exist. 

Education  as  a  General  Proposition. 

Education  in  its  most  general  sense  has  to  do -with  the 
acquisition  of  habits  of  appropriate  response  to  any  and 
all  situations.  It  involves  two  major  factors,  namely: 

(1)  Adjustment. 

This  is  the  subjective  phase  and  includes  all  changes 
within  the  organism  which  permanently  affect  chiefly  (a) 
the  sensitivity  or  impression  receiving  power  and  (b)  the 
conductivity  or  organizing  power. 

(2)  Adaptation. 

This  has  to  do  with  relationship  between  the  organism 
and  its  environment  and  is  chiefly  a  matter  of  (a)  the 
organizing  power,  and  (b)  the  expressive  power. 

A  Concrete  Illustration  of  Adjustment  and  Adaptation. 

(1)  The  Situation. 

A  comparatively  inexperienced  individual  and  an  auto- 
mobile which  has  suddenly  and  for  no  obvious  cause 
ceased  to  function. 

(2)  The  Individual's  Present  Available  Knowledge. 

He  has  some  present  adjustment  derived  in  part  from 
a  study  of  high  school  physics  and  in  part  from  actual 
experience  with  a  simple  gasoline  engine  used  at  home. 
He  also  knows  in  a  very  general  way  about  batteries,  con- 
ducting wires  and  connections,  and  spark  plugs.  Accord- 


268 

ingly,  he  has  certain  items  of  knowledge  about  the 
mechanisms  under  the  hood  of  his  machine.  He  is  not, 
however,  sufficiently  adjusted  to  master  at  once  the  situa- 
tion. 

(3)  The  Acquisition  of  New  Knowledge.  (1)  The  bat- 
tery is  tested  by  turning  on  the  lights  and  sounding  the 
horn,  or  if  a  gravity-testing  device  is  available  the  electro- 
lyte is  tested  and  the  battery  determined  to  be  all  right. 
(2)  The  wires  and  connections  are  followed  and  found  to 
be  in  proper  order.  (3)  The  spark  plugs  are  examined 
and  found  whole  and  clean.  (4)  The  gasoline  tank  is  ex- 
amined and  found  to  be  half  full. 

The  limit  of  this  individual's  adjustment  with  respect 
to  automobiles  we  will  assume  has  been  reached  and  he  is 
not  sufficiently  adapted  to  the  situation  to  solve  the  prob- 
lem. 

Now  two  possibilities  lie  ahead.  He  may  walk  home  or 
he  may  acquire  new  knowledge  in  some  way.  Many,  and 
perhaps  most,  attempt  to  acquire  this  new  knowledge  by 
telephoning  to  a  garage,  describing  the  symptoms  as  fully 
as  possible,  receiving  in  return  suggestions  as  to  new  tests 
or  advice  as  to  further  procedure.  There  are  others,  how- 
ever, who  proceed  ' '  pedagogically "  by  further  adjusting 
themselves  through  a  process  of  getting  new  impressions 
by  various  experiments  or  by  further  organization  of  what 
they  already  know. 

In  the  first  process,  that  of  getting  new  impressions,  one 
may  try  advancing  or  retarding  the  spark  or  he  may  un- 
cover and  look  at  the  timer,  or  make  random  changes  in 
carburetor  or  clean  up  the  electrical  connections.  Under 
second  heading,  that  of.  further  organization  of  his 
knowledge,  he  may  review  all  of  his  own  experiences  and 
so  much  of  that  of  others  as  he  can  recall,  that  is,  he  may 
think  about  it. 

Either  process  may  solve  the  problem  or  both  may  fail. 

All  of  this  is  an  attempt   at  getting  new  impressions 


269 

which  may  help  to  locate  the  difficulty  and  hence  facilitate 
a  better  organization  of  knowledge. 

Thus  far  we  have  been  dealing  almost  entirely  with  the 
operator  of  the  automobile.  "We  have  seen  how  he  tries  to 
adjust  himself  to  meet  the  demands  of  a  situation  with 
which  he  is  not  familiar.  Now  we  have  to  follow  him  as 
he  organizes  bits  of  new  experience  with  what  he  already 
knows,  thereby  establishing  such  a  relationship  between 
himself  and  his  environment  that  the  result  becomes  a 
solution  of  the  problem  of  starting  the  automobile ;  that  is, 
we  are  tracing  how  the  man  adapts  himself  to  his  adverse 
environment. 

The  facts  are  as  follows :  The  motor  turns  over  nor- 
mally; the  battery  is  working;  the  wires  seem  properly 
insulated  and  connected ;  the  spark  plugs  show  no  defects ; 
there  is  gasoline  enough  in  the  tank  but  the  outstanding 
fact  is  that  there  are  no  explosions  in  the  cylinders. 

The  carburetor  has  a  device  such  that  it  can  be  ' '  flooded ' ' 
and  the  operator  has  been  told  that  it  facilitates  start- 
ing, especially  in  cold  weather,  if  this  device  is  manip- 
ulated so  that  gasoline  overflows.  He  operates  the  device 
but  gets  no  overflow ;  repeated  trials  result  the  same.  Here 
is  a  new  fact  of  observation  (impression).  What  effect 
has  this  on  the  facts  already  possessed?  What  can  his  or- 
ganizing powers  do  with  this  fact  1 

There  is  gasoline  in  the  tank  *at  the  rear  of  the  machine 
but  none  in  the  carburetor.  Where  is  the  trouble  located? 
Is  the  pipe  leading  from  the  tank  to  the  vacuum  feed 
clogged?  By  disconnecting  this  supply  pipe  from  the 
feed  he  can  by  means  of  his  tire  pump  and  a  yard  of  elec- 
trician's tape,  force  air  back  into  the  tank  if  the  pipe  is 
clear.  Trial  shows  that  air  does  not  bubble  back  through 
the  gasoline.  He  applies  more  pressure  and  at  last  cleans 
the  tube. 

A  new  fact  impressing  itself  through  the  sense  of  sight 
as  the  carburetor  failed  to  flood  is  organized  with  exist- 
ing knowledge,  thereby  creating  a  new  adjustment  within 


270 

the  nerve  mechanism,  results  in  the  possibility  of  a  new 
adaptation  to  environment.  The  air  pump  impresses  upon 
the  senses  of  hearing  and  touch  two  facts :  first  that  of  an 
obstruction,  and  second  that  of  the  sudden  removal  of  the 
obstruction. 

This  adjustment  is  initiated  by  the  impression  of  a  sud- 
den flow  of  air  through  the  supply  pipe.  It  is  developed 
by  mentally  organizing  the  new  fact  into  the  existing 
knowledge  with  the  resulting  prediction,  "Now  the  motor 
will  start,"  and  is  completed  when  the  operator  gives 
expression  to  the  new  faith  that  is  in  him  by  assembling 
the  parts  and  cranking  the  car. 

The  foregoing  introduction,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  of  serv- 
ice in  working  out  a  rational  plan  of  school  procedure  as 
teachers  guide  and  assist  pupils  to  develop  their  natural 
capacity  into  actual  power  for  doing  the  world's  work. 

The  Five  Formal  Steps. 

It  was  said  at  the  outset  that  the  Herbartian  "five  for- 
mal steps  need  def  ormalizing. "  The  reason  for  this  state- 
ment lies  in  the  fact  that  the  so-called  five  steps  are  neither 
five  in  number  nor  steps  in  sequence.  The  processes  over- 
lap in  point  of  time  and  are  not  separate  and  distinct  as 
to  character.  The  divisions  are  artificial  in  large  measure 
and  hence  the  teacher  in  ^attempting  to  follow  their  lead 
is  sure  to  fall  into  the  error  either  of  dividing  into  parts 
that  which  is  a  whole  or  of  presenting  as  a  whole  that 
which  needs  separating  into  parts. 

The  "five  steps,"  in  the  days  when  a  series  of  six 
readers,  two  geographies,  a  grammar  and  two  arithmetics 
constituted  the  working  weapons  against  which  for  ten 
years  the  elementary  school  pupil  was  constantly  on  the 
defensive,  no  doubt  tempered,  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb 
and  under  such  bleak  and  severe  conditions,  afforded  a 
much-needed  protection  against  the  prevalent  type  of  rec- 
itation concerning  which  Parker  says:  "The  common 
practice  of  using  the  class  period  for  mere  repetition  of 


271 


material  learned  in  the  textbook  is  one  of  the  most  perni- 
cious sources  of  waste  and  lack  of  interest  to  be  found  in 
school."*  This  applies  with  even. greater  force  to  the  ele- 
mentary school  than  to  the  high  school.  Today,  however, 
when  supplementary  material,  not  only  in  printed  form  but 
as  pictures  and  specimens  of  products,  is  available  in  such 
profusion  and  is  of  such  convincing  quality,  and  when 
excursions  bring  pupils  into  the  immediate  environment 
of  the  simple  activities  of  home,  shop,  farm,  store,  etc.,  as 
well  as  the  more  complex  operation  of  manufacturing, 
there  is  no  excuse  for  recitations  of  the  type  described  nor 
do  the  "five  formal  steps"  necessarily  obviate  this  "per- 
nicious waste." 

The  person  who  is  most  suitably  educated  under  pres- 
ent-day conditions  is  the  one  who  has  acquired  the  power 
to  respond  appropriately  to  the  largest  variety  of  situa- 
tions as  they  arise.  In  securing  conditions  favorable  to 
the  development  of  this  power  the  teacher  will  be  guided 
best  by  regarding  the  educative  process  in  its  biological 
relations,  i.  e.,  the  way  in  which  human  as  well  as  other 
living  organisms  naturally  act. 

Chapter  XXI  of  the  Program  of  Studies  for  Elementary 
Schools  of  New  Hampshire,  Third  Edition,  1916,  deals  with 
:'The  Teaching  of  Any  Topic."  This  chapter  is  a  concise 
statement  of  a  modified  form  of  the  Herbartian  "five 
formal  steps"  and  has  been  found  helpful  by  many 
teachers  inexperienced  and  experienced.  It  will  continue 
to  be  used  and  hence  a  comparison  of  the  three  plans 
seems  desirable. 


Herbart's  Classification. 

Chapter  XXI  Plan. 

Biological   Basis. 

I      Preparation. 
II     Presentation. 
Ill     Comparison  and  abstraction. 
IV     Generalization. 
V     Application. 

Preparation.      ) 
Presentation,     t 
Assimilation. 
Organization,     j 
Recitation. 

I     Impression. 

II      Organization. 
Ill     Expression. 

*Parker:   Methods  of  Teaching  in  High    School,  p.  424. 


272 

"  '    $ 
The  correspondence  in  the  above  are  approximate  only 

but  sufficiently  equivalent  to  justify  the  tabulation.  A 
brief  statement  will  aid  teachers  in  comparing  the  proc- 
esses. 

Preparation  so  far  as  the  pupil  is  concerned  stands  for 
recalling  impressions  which  previous  experience,  direct  or 
indirect,  have  made  a  permanent  part  of  the  pupil's  men- 
tal stock  in  trade. 

Presentation  has  to  do  with  the  teacher's  effort  in  guid- 
ing, directing,  suggesting,  etc.,  in  order  that  the  pupil 
through  his  own  experience  may  add  new  impressions 
susceptible  of  being  organized  with  the  recalled  impres- 
sions. The  teacher  deliberately  plans  an  environment 
likely  to  give  the  pupil  experiences  from  which  desired 
impressions,  chiefly  new  but  obviously  related,  are  likely 
to  result. 

Assimilation  is  the  pupil's  opportunity  for  the  closest 
possible  contact  with  this  specially  arranged  environment. 
This  step,  perhaps  more  than  any  other,  shows  the  artifi- 
ciality of  the  Herbartian  scheme.  The  process  is  largely 
one  of  impression  getting,  notwithstanding,  it  has  a  con- 
siderable element  of  organization  scattered  throughout. 
Again  there  is  no  real  line  of  separation  between  assimi- 
lation and  organization.  Both  assimilation  and  organiza- 
tion properly  fall  under  that  beneficial  device  of  school- 
room administration  known  as  supervised  study  by  means 
of  which  the  teacher  directs  the  pupil  by  questions  and 
suggestions. 

The  two  "steps,"  assimilation  and  organization  cover 
the  grouping,  comparing,  relating  and  inferring  as  given 
in  Prest.  Eliot's  descriptive  definition  of  the  educative 
process.  These  steps  are  so  inseparable  in  action  that  to 
disconnect  them  in  thought  is  only  a  trick  of  logic  which 
works  to  confuse  the  young  teacher  and  is  of  no  particular 
value  to  the  experienced  teacher. 

The  Herbartian  steps  III  and  IV  are  likewise  one 
process  mentally.  They  are  concerned  with  comparing, 


273 

.* 

relating  and  inferring  and  hence  are  part  of  the  whole 
process  of  organization  which  in  turn  is  the  tendency  of 
the  central  nerve  mechanism  of  educable  animals,  man  in 
particular,  to  delay  reaction  to  a  given  situation  by  keep- 
ing the  newer  accessory  parts  of  the  brain  in  circuit  in- 
stead of  referring  sensations  to  the  old,  fundamental 
nerve  centers  governing  instinctive  and  automatic  re- 
sponses. 

CONCLUSION   (  EXPRESSION  )  . 

Any  recitation  in  any  subject  whatsover  is  made  up  of 
three  parts,  namely: 

I.  Impression. 

The  phenomena  of  the  natural  world  of  matter  and  en- 
ergy, the  written  or  printed  page,  the  spoken  word,  pic- 
tures-, music,  tools,  mechanisms,  etc., — in  a  word  the  sum 
total  of  environment, — as  in  innumerable  ways,  it  acts 
upon  the  pupil. 

II.  Organization. 

(a)  Recalling  and  reviewing  previous  impressions  or 
the  results  of  previous  impressions,  (b)  Combining  with 
these  past  experiences  the  related  new  impressions  derived 
through  I  in  order  that  the  new  may  be  interpreted  and 
by  combination  both  the  old  and  the  new  be  made  more 
available  or  of  greater  worth.  This  is  a  process  worked 
out  by  the  nerve  mechanism  and  depends  upon  the  char- 
acteristic property  of  nerve  tissue  which  enables  it  to 
retain  in  some  unknown  way  the  results  of  previous  im- 
pressions in  such  form  that  the  organism  may  make  use  of 
the  data  of  past  experience  in  dealing  with  present  situa- 
tions. 


18 


274 
III.     Expression. 

Making  an  appropriate  response  (reacting)  to  a  given 
situation,  this  response  being  based  upon  similar  impres- 
sions previously  experienced  but  modified  by  any  new  ele- 
ments which  I  and  II  have  shown  to  be  peculiar  to  the 
present  situation. 

Oral  and  written  language,  sketches,  drawings,  arith- 
metical or  algebraic  solutions,  geometrical  demonstrations, 
manipulation  of  plastic  materials,  paintings,  constructions 
in  wood,  metal,  leather,  textiles,  bodily  movements  in  plays 
and  games,  etc.,  etc.,  are  all  means  of  giving  expression 
to  the  net  result  of  impression  and  organization. 


275 


APPENDIX  C. 

CODE   OF    PROFESSIONAL    ETHICS   ADOPTED    BY    THE   NEW 

HAMPSHIRE   STATE   TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATION, 

OCTOBER  22,  1915. 

I.     DEFINITION  OF  TERMS. 

It  is  desirable  that  there  should  be  a  general  profes- 
sional agreement  as  to  the  designations  to  be  given  to 
members  of  the  teaching  profession  in  the  State  accord- 
ing to  the  functions  which  they  perform.  It  is  not  well 
that  there  should  be  no  fixed  designations  with  the  result 
that  the  general  public  uses  such  terms  as  "professor"  in- 
discriminately. The  following  designations  are,  therefore, 
recommended  and  it  is  hoped  that  different  official  bodies, 
qualified  to  do  so,  will  eventually  give  them  their  sanction. 

1.  The   title  of  the   officer   having   charge   of   general 
education  in  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  should  be  the 
Commissioner  of  Education. 

2.  His    deputies    should    be    called    Deputy    Commis- 
sioners of  Education. 

3.  The  head  of  the  New  Hampshire  College  of  Agri- 
culture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts   should  be   called   Presi- 
dent and  persons  holding  chairs  in  the  institution  should 
be  called  Professors  according  to  such  grades  as  the  col- 
lege authorities  from  time  to  time  specify. 

4.  The  title  of  the  heads  of  the  Normal  Schools  should 
be  Director. 

5.  A  professional  educator  engaged  in  the  supervision 
of  local  school  systems  should  be  called  Superintendent, 
and  his  assistant  in  the  work  of  general  supervision  should 
be  called  Assistant  Superintendent. 

6.  A  person  whose  sole  duty  is  directing  both  teachers 
and  pupils  in  a  special  department  of  school  work  should 
be  called  a  Supervisor. 


276 

7.  The  head  of  an  approved  secondary  school  of  the 
first  class  should  be  called  Head  Master. 

8.  A  school  officer  having  the  supervision  and  control 
of  teachers  and  pupils  in  an  elementary  school  or  of  a 
secondary  school  below  the  grade  of  first  class  should  be 
called  Principal. 

9.  The  teaching  force   of  the   New   Hampshire   State 
College  and  the  Normal  Schools  should  be  called  the  Fac- 
ulty and  that  of  secondary  schools  should  be  called  the 
Staff. 

10.  The  title  of  Professor  should  be  reserved  for  teach- 
ers holding  chairs  in  colleges  and  graduate  schools. 

II.      RESPONSIBILITY. 

1.  The   proper  conception   of   education  being  to  de- 
velop  all  the   powers   and   faculties   of  body,   mind   and 
spirit,  with  which  a  child  has  been  endowed  by  the  Cre- 
ator, the  first  duty  of  teachers  is  to  safeguard  and  bring 
to  the  highest  state  of  perfection  the  physical,  intellectual, 
aesthetic,  moral,  social,  and  so  far  as  possible,  the  spiritual 
endowment  of  their  pupils. 

2.  As    the    teacher    must    necessarily    stand    in    loco 
parentis,  in  rather  large  measure,  the  duty  of  teachers  to 
parents  is  to  seek  their  acquaintance,  to  cooperate  with 
them  in  the   education   of  their   children,   to  become   in- 
formed of  the  home  life  and  conditions  by  friendly  visits, 
and  in  all  other  respects  to  manifest  an  interest  in  the 
individual  child.     Above  all,  a  teacher  should  be  frank, 
as  well  as  sympathetic,  in  dealing  with  parents.     Criti- 
cism by  parents  should  be  received  with  courtesy  and  pa- 
tience. 

3.  The  duty  of  teachers  to  the  community  is  to  be  loyal 
to  those  in  authority  over  them.     In  case  of  a  conflict  of 
educational  ideals,  between  teachers  and  trustees  or  school 
boards,    while   they   should   recognize    the    fact    that    the 
school  authorities  must  direct  the  general  policy  of  the 


277 

school,  it  is  the  duty  of  teachers  to  be  loyal  to  their  pro- 
fessional ideals,  to  protest  against  any  violation  of  pro- 
fessional ethics,  and  in  extreme  cases  to  resign,  stating 
their  reasons  to  the  community. 

While  never  exploiting  their  position,  teachers  should 
always  maintain  a  progressive  conservatism  of  thought 
and  action,  dignity  of  character,  honesty  of  purpose,  and 
should  take  an  unqualified  stand  for  the  best  in  education 
and  in  social  life. 

III.      THE  DUTIES  OP  TEACHERS  TO  FELLOW  TEACHERS  AND  TO 
THE  PROFESSION  AT  LARGE. 

1.  It  is  the  dutv  of  every  teacher  to  regard  every  other 
teacher  as  a  fellow  crafstman  and  as  entitled  to  all  the 
rights,  courtesies,  and  emoluments  that  usually  obtain  in 
other  professions,  with  recognized  standards. 

2.  It    is   unprofessional    for    teachers    to    criticise    co- 
laborers    and    predecessors,    as   such    procedure    tends   to 
weaken  the  confidence  in  which  the  work  of  our  profession 
is  held  by  the  community. 

3.  All  teachers  should  actively  affiliate  themselves  with 
professional  organizations  and  should  acquaint  themselves 
with  the  proceedings  of  the  State  Association  and  should 
interest  themselves  in  its  activities. 

4.  It  is  an  essential  part  of  the  ethics  of  the  profession 
that  teachers  should  constantly  familiarize  themselves  with 
its  recognized  and  authoritative  literature. 

5.  Since  they  are  rightly  regarded  as  examples  to  pu- 
pils, teachers  should  always  so  conduct  themselves  that  no 
just  reproach  may  be  brought  against  them.     Where  lib- 
erty of  conscience  is   not   concerned,   they  should   stand 
ready  to  make  personal  sacrifice,  because  of  the  prejudices 
of  the  community  in  which  they  live. 

6.  It  is  unprofessional  for  teachers  to  tutor  pupils  of 
their  own  classes  for  remuneration. 

7.  It  is  unprofessional  for  teachers  to  promote  the  in- 


278 

terests  of  canvassers  and  other  salesmen,  either  directly  or 
indirectly,  by  writing  testimonials  of  their  wares. 

8.  It  is  unprofessional  for  any  teacher  to  lend  himself 
to  any  scheme  of  self  advertising. 

9.  It  is  unprofessional  to  call  for  or  to  allow  the  use 
of  substitutes,  except  for  serious  illness  or  for  other  grave 
reasons. 

10.  A  clear  understanding  of  the  law  of  contracts  is 
incumbent    upon    all    teachers.      Since    teachers    should 
scrupulously  keep   whatever  agreement  they   make,   they 
should  refuse  to  sign  a  contract  unjust  and  humiliating 
in  form. 

11.  It  is  unprofessional  for  teachers  to  resign  during 
the  period  for  which  they  have  been  engaged.     They  may 
rightly  ask  to  be  released,  by  giving  notice  of  not  less  than 
four  weeks,  but  must  in  case  of  refusal  abide  by  their  con- 
tract.     Superintendents    should    not    attempt    to    induce 
teachers  to  leave  positions  immediately  before  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fall  term  or  during  the  first  or  last  month 
of  the  school  year. 

12.  It  is  unprofessional  for  a  teacher  to  underbid   a 
rival  in  order  to  secure  a  position. 

13.  It  is  unprofessional  for  a  superintendent  or  other 
school  officer  to  offer  a  position  to  a  teacher  without  first 
conferring    with    the    superintendent    under    whom    that 
teacher  is  employed. 

14.  It  is  highly  unprofessional  for  a  superintendent  or 
other  school  officer  to  visit,  with  a  view  to  employing,  a 
candidate  at  work,  without  the  permission  of  his  or  her 
superintendent.    When  visiting  schools,  the  visitor  should 
never  disarrange  the  work  of  the  day. 

15.  It  is  unprofessional  for  superintendents  and  teach- 
ers, in  their  relations  with  publishing  or  supply  houses, 
their  agents  or  salesmen,  to  give  just  grounds  for  the  sus- 
picion of  obligations  tending  to  influence  the  purchase  or 
adoption  of  books  or  supplies  in  favor  of  any  particular 
agent  or  firm. 


279 

16.  The  indiscriminate  writing  of  general   recommen- 
dations for  pupils  or  teachers  is  unprofessional. 

17.  Teachers  should  at  all  times  be  ready  to  assist  one 
another  by  giving  information,  counsel,  and  advice,  and 
by  such  services  and  acts  as  teachers  can  perform  without 
detriment  to  themselves  or  their  work.     Such  reasonable 
service   should   be   regarded   as   a   professional   duty   for 
which  remuneration  beyond  actual  expenses  should  not  be 
accepted. 

IV.      TEACHERS  AS  CITIZENS. 

1.  It  is  incumbent  on  teachers  loyally  to  acknowledge 
all  the  duties  and  obligations  of  citizenship,  and  to  dis- 
charge them  both  in  letter  and  in  spirit. 

2.  Because  of  their  peculiar  position,  teachers  should 
especially  regard  themselves  as  guardians  and  promoters 
of  the  physical,  moral,  social,  and  spiritual  welfare  of  the 
community  in  which  they  live. 

3.  Teachers  are  and  should  be  the  servants  of  the  peo- 
ple, without  regard  to  distinctions  of  political  party,  re- 
ligious faith,  or  other  matters  which  are  brought  into  issue 
and  upon  which  individuals  honestly  disagree.     Teachers 
are  fully  entitled  to  liberty  of  conscience,  but  it  is  unpro- 
fessional for  them  to  become  partisans  upon  issues  which 
divide  the  community. 


UNIVEESITY   OF   CALIFOBNIA   LIBRABY, 
BEKKELEY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED   BELOW 

Books  not  returned  on  time  are  subject  to  a  fine  of 
50c  per  volume  after  the  third  day  overdue,  increasing 
to  $1.00  per  volume  after  the  sixth  day.  Books  not  in 
demand  may  be  renewed  if  application  is  made  before 
expiration  of  loan  period. 


IS 


50m-7,'29 


YC  56792 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


